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Discuss historical research covering the concept of primary sources, secondary sources internal and external criticism.

Course: Research Methods in Education

Course Code 8604    

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

 ANSWER

 

The Historical Research

Nevins  (1962) illustrates the use of hypotheses in the historical research of Edward Channing in answering the question, “Why did the Confederacy collapse in April 1865?”Chinning formulated four hypotheses and tested each one in light of evidence gathered from letters, diaries, and official records of the army and the government of the Confederacy. He hypothesized that the Confederacy collapsed because of

1.  The military defeat of the Confederate army

2.  The dearth of military supplies

3.  The starving condition of the Confederate soldiers and the civilians

4.  The disintegration of the will to continue the war

Channing produced evidence that seemed to refute the first three hypotheses. More than 200,000 well-equipped soldiers were under arms at the time of the surrender, the effective production of powder and arms provided sufficient military supplies to continue the war, and enough food was available to sustain fighting men and civilians.

Channing concluded that hypothesis 4, the disintegration of the will to continue the war was substantiated by the excessive number of desertions of enlisted men and officers. Confederate military officials testified that they had intercepted many letters from home urging the soldiers to desert.

Although the hypothesis sustained was not specific enough to be particularly helpful, the rejection of the first three did claim to dispose of some commonly held explanations. This example illustrates a historical study in which hypotheses were explicitly stated.

 

Primary Sources of Educational Data

Many of the old materials mentioned in the preceding section provide primary evidence that may be useful specifically in studying the history of education. A number are listed here. Official  Records and  Other  Documentary  Materials.  Included in this category are records and reports of legislative bodies and state departments of public instruction, city superintendents, principals, presidents, deans, department heads, educational committees, minutes of school boards and boards of trustees, surveys, charters, deeds, wills, professional and lay periodicals, school newspapers, annuals, bulletins, catalogs, courses of study, curriculum guides, athletic game records, programs (for graduation, dramatic, musical, and athletic events), licenses, certificates, textbooks, examinations, report cards, pictures, drawings, maps, letters, diaries, autobiographies, teacher and pupil personnel files, samples of student work, and recordings.

Oral  Testimony.  Included here are interviews with administrators, teachers, and other school employees, students and relatives, school patrons or lay dozens, and members of governing bodies. Relics.  Included in this category are buildings, furniture, teaching materials, equipment, murals, decorative pictures, textbooks, examinations, and samples of student work

 

Secondary Source of Data

Secondary sources are the reports of a person who relates the testimony of an actual witness of, or participant in, an event. The writer of the secondary source was not on the scene of the event but merely reported what the person who was there said or wrote.

Secondary sources of data are usually of limited worth for research purposes because of the errors that may result when information is passed on from one person to another most history textbooks and encyclopedias are examples of secondary sources for they are often several times removed from the original, firsthand account of events.

Some types of material may be secondary sources for some purposes and primary sources for others. For example, a high school textbook in American history is ordinarily a secondary source. But if one were making a study of the changing emphasis on nationalism in high school American history textbooks, the book would be a primary document or source of data.

 

External Criticism

External criticism establishes the authenticity or genuineness of data. Is the relic or document a true one rather than a forgery a counterfeit, or a hoax? Various tests of genuineness may be employed.

Establishing the age or authorship of documents may require intricate tests of signature, handwriting, script, type, spelling, language usage, documentation, knowledge available at the time, and consistency with what is known. It may involve physical and chemical tests of ink, paint, paper, parchment, cloth, stone, metals, or wood. Are these elements consistent with known facts about the person, the knowledge available, and the technology of the period in which they remain or the document originated?

Internal Criticism

After the authenticity of historical documents or relics has been established, there is still the problem of evaluating their accuracy or worth. Although they may be genuine, do they reveal a true picture? What of the writers or creators. Were they competent, honest, unbiased, and actually acquainted with the facts, or were they too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give a true picture? Did they have any motives for distorting the account? Were they subject to pressure, fear, or vanity? How long after the event did they make a record of their testimony, and were they able to remember accurately what happened? Were they in agreement with other competent witnesses? These questions are often difficult to answer, but the historian must be sure that the data are authentic and accurate. Only then may he or she introduce them as historical evidence, worthy of serious consideration.

The following examples describe ways in which evidence is tested for authenticity. The first is an example of historical criticism of a scholarly type, carried on by scientists and biblical scholars, in which historic documents were proven to be genuine.

Experimental Research Designs

 

Discus experimental research designs in detail

Course: Research Methods in Education

Course Code 8604    

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

 ANSWER

 

Experimental Research

J.W. Best (1992, P.110) describes experimental research as the description and analysis of what will be or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions.

According to Carter V. Good, and Douglas E. Scates (1954, P.809), "Experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in which the investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or group of children is subjected during the period of inquiry, and observes the resulting achievements."

S.P. Sukhia, P.V. Mehrotra, and R.N. Mehrotra (1991, P.227) describe the experimental method as the application and adaptation of the classical method of the science laboratory. It is the most exacting and difficult of all methods and also the most important from the strictly scientific point of view.

The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable. However, experimentation in education is useful to determine and evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of educational aims and objectives through the measurement of outcomes. It serves as the basis for the formulation, execution, and modification of educational policies and programs.

It is further used to ascertain the effects of any change in normal educational programs and practices.

An experiment calls for the satisfaction of three basic interrelated conditions i.e. Control, Randomization, and Replication.

1.  Control is the basic element in experimentation. The influence of extraneous factors that are not included in the hypothesis are prevented from operating and confusing the outcome which is to be appraised.

Three types of controls are exercised in an experiment. These include:

i)  Physical controls.

ii)  Selective controls.

iii)  Statistical controls.

2.  Randomization is a very difficult to exercise complete control, efforts are made to assign cases in the experimental and control groups randomly.

3.  Replication implies conducting several sub-experiments within the framework of an overall experimental design.

Experimentation in education is not a perfectly precise method. Many variables in education are extremely difficult or even impossible to control. The basic condition of other things being equal is difficult for fulfillment in educational research. All experiments in education are ultimately experiments with children who for ethical reasons must not be subjected to conditions that may harm them. There are boundaries of a moral character for experimentation that must not be infringed.

There are many areas in which experimental studies in education can approximate strictly empirical research. For example, the teaching of spelling through different methods and, the difference between the effect of the authoritarian and the democratic setup in education are problems that have been handled scientifically through the experimental approach.

The following are the major steps in experimental research.

1.  Planning the experiment.

2.  Conducting the experiment.

3.  Reporting the results.

Furthermore, the experimental designs are classified as Single Design, Parallel Design, and Rotational Method. The details of all such designs are discussed below:

1. Single Design.

This type of experiment is carried out by comparing the growth of a single individual or group under' two sets of conditions. The experimenter observes the performance of the individual or the group before and after the introduction of the experimental variable. Let us say the experimenter is interested in evaluating the reading speed of a group of sixth-class students as affected by training. He will adopt steps like testing the group, allowing for a period of transition, and testing the group again.

2.  Parallel or Equivalent Group Design. 

In this two or more groups of subjects equivalent in all significant aspects are selected. One of these groups serves as the 'control group' and the other as 'experimental group'.

3.  Rotation Group Experimentation. 

This method involves the rotation of 'instructional factors of the experimental and control groups Pt equal intervals. This method is used to obtain control of pupil factors when groups cannot be thoroughly equated. It also neutralizes the teacher variable. Of the three designs of educational experimentation, this is the most valid and at the same time most complicated.

Need and Scope of Education Research

 

What is the need and scope of education research?   

Course: Research Methods in Education

Course Code 8604    

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

 ANSWER

 Need of Research

The following points will justify the need for educational research.

1.  Rapid Expansion and Democratization of Education. 

The need for education research to improve educational policies and practices is being realized increasingly. Education research has assumed greater urgency because of the very rapid expansion and democratization of education throughout the world during the last decade.

2.  Technological Changes.

The rapid technological changes have brought an increase in educational problems and both laymen and educators have felt that they can no longer depend upon trial and error. No amount of experience gathered and no amount of wisdom collected in the form of casual observations, traditions, or recommendations of groups or individuals can ever promise rapid progress and improvement as is needed all over the world.  Therefore, educationists are constantly searching for effective methods of instruction, more satisfactory techniques of evaluation, richer learning materials, more efficient systems of administration, and better human relations. Just as the sociologists, the anthropologists, and economists are carrying on research, so is the case with the educationists.

3.  New Demands on Education. 

With educational research, it may not be possible to develop new curricula, new teaching methods, and new teaching materials to meet the new demands placed on the educational systems of the world. Robert M.W. Travers in 'An Introduction to Educational Research' has. stated that educational research forms an indispensable basis for any  “national organization of education, especially  as regards curricula, syllabuses, and methods as well as for financing education, for its planning, and for the building of schools.”

4.  Interdisciplinary Approach to  Education. 

Education is a growing science and its foundations are to be explored for a study of the subject as an interdisciplinary approach. It is, therefore, almost imperative to study education in its proper perspective. Philosophy is the cornerstone of the foundation of education and psychology provides the bricks and mortar for laying the foundation of education on a scientific basis. Educational research is thus an indispensable development for its growth. Thus we can hardly afford to think of education in isolation today.

5.  Knowledge Explosion and the  Need for Educational Research. 

The world has witnessed an unprecedented explosion of knowledge. Since education depends on a corpus of knowledge, the need for research arises to study the changes in various disciplines and to make necessary adjustments in educational philosophy, programs, and policies. The means, methods, and machinery of education need to change in the light of a progressive social milieu, and changing economic, political, and social set-up.

6.  Education and Productivity. 

Education and productivity are positively

correlated and education needs planning according to manpower needs which in turn is based on research.

7.  Scarce  Resources and Optimum Development. 

It is through research only that we come to know how best to utilize the available resources for achieving the best results.

8.  Spirit of Research is Needed Everywhere. 

A spirit of inquiry adds to the competence and scholarship of the researcher.

9.  Research is Needed to Keep out of Fixed track. 

Research enables an individual to change his conservative outlook. It keeps us out of fixed track by making us mentally alive.

 

Scope of Research in Education

The importance of educational research in national development is now being increasingly realized all over the world. This is apparent from the educational progress in developing countries, particularly from the fact that education has become more and more effective, dynamic, and purposeful in countries where research has flourished. It is based on research that the function of education has been broadened. Educational research has a great bearing on the role of education in introducing social and economic charges.

Six Major Possibilities of the Utilization of Research Towards National Development

Six major possibilities for the utilization of research toward national development can be identified. They are:

1.  Educational research throws up valuable background data from which the planner can make his own assessment of the prevailing situation, especially of the magnitude, complexity, and ramifications of the problem he has to handle.

2.  Carefully designed analytic studies can illuminate critical areas of policy. The overt and covert dimensions of a given problem emerging in such studies provide the planner with a measure of foresight to deal with them effectively and efficiently.

3.  These studies open up the possibility of testing the validity of the assumptions that must, of necessity, be made by the planner in setting his proximate and ultimate objectives.

4.  They enable the planner to estimate the possible consequences and cost of the different choices available to them in determining the path for the attainment of their goals.

5.  Diagnostic studies suggest where and why particular projects gearing.  Their unattended consequences are also brought to light.

6.  Wide dissemination of educational research findings increases general awareness concerning the situation to be met as well as the policy designed for this purpose. This may enhance the credibility of particular policies and prepare the people for them. It may also help towards building up popular pressures for the reformulation of particular policies or for weeding them out altogether.

Concept of Research in Education

 

Explain the concept of research in Education. 

Course: Research Methods in Education

Course Code 8604    

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

 ANSWER

Concept of Research in Education:

According  to J.W. Best (1992), research is an  “intellectual activity which brings to light new knowledge or corrects previous error-and misconceptions and adds in an orderly way to the existing corpus of knowledge.”

The terms 'research and scientific method' are often used synonymously and 'research is considered to be more formal' systematic intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. There are seven elements of the scientific process namely:

i.  Purposeful Observation;

ii.  Analysis – Synthesis;

iii.  Selective Recall;

iv.  Hypothesis;

v.  Verification by Inference and Experimentation;

vi.  Reasoning by:

(a) Method of Agreement,

 (b) Method of Disagreement,

(c) Method

of Concomitant Variation, 

(d)  Method of Residues, and

(e) Joint Method of

Agreement and Disagreement;

vii.  Judgment.

It might be helpful to highlight some of the accepted connotations of research. These include:

1.  Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem that would be possible facts, analyses these critically, and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of a mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a

desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only 'what' but 'how much', and measurement is therefore, a central feature of it.

2.  Research 'per se' constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems;

formulating a hypothesis or suggested solution; collecting, organizing, and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

3.  The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method, interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of educational problems; conversely, any systematic study designed to promote the development of education as a science can be considered educational research. Best (1992) thinks,  “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of result or conclusions.”

4.  Moreover, research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry, or a frame of mind. It asks questions that have not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure, is not a mere theorizing, rather it is an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have assembled.

5.  Research is also called a kind of human behavior. However, one general definition of research would be that which refers to the 'activity' of collecting information in an orderly and systematic fashion. Research is literally speaking a kind of human behavior, and 'activity' in which people engage. In education, teachers, administrators, scholars, or others engage in educational research when they systematically assemble information about schools, school children, the social matrix in which a school system is determined, the characteristics of the learner, or the interaction between the school and pupils.

6.  Educational research is normally considered as scientific research. Educational research is meant here 4ie the whole of the efforts carried out by public or private bodies to improve educational methods and educational activity in general whether involving scientific research and a. high level or more modest experiments concerning the school system and educational methods.

7.  The Webster's International Dictionary proposes a very inclusive definition of research as  “careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or 'principles; diligent investigation to ascertain something.”

8.  D. Slesinger and M.  Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as  “The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols to generalize to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether the knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

9.  While discussing the nature and significance of educational research some scholars say,  “Educational research is that activity which is directed towards the development of the science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the most effective methods”.

10.  Some scholars considered research as a process of developing process. According to them  “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, answers to questions, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field of education; therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The mere collection and tabulation of facts is not research, though it may be preliminary to it on even a part of thereof”.

Scope, Need, Importance, and Role of Education in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan

 

Discuss the scope, need, importance, and role of education in the province of  Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan

 

Course: Educational Leadership and Management

Course Code  8605

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

Department of Education Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

 

As is in the case of other provinces the secretary of Education is the administrative head of the provincial Education Department. In the performance of his functions, lie is assisted by two additional secretaries.  Deputy  Secretaries, Chief Planning Officer and several Section Officers.

The organizational chart of the Department of Education,  Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa shows the administrative jurisdiction and scope of the Department of Education.

Unlike Punjab and Sindh, the Directors of education of school and college education are responsible for the organization of public instructions and their supervision in the whole province. Each of the Directors of Education is the head of his respective Department i.e. School Education or College Education. He is responsible to the Government of  Khyber Pakhtunkhwa through the Education Secretary.

1.  Director of Education (College)

The  Director of Education (Colleges) is responsible for overall administrative control of the Directorate of College Education and institutions in the Province. In the performance of his job, the Director is assisted by a  Deputy Director of Colleges. The  Deputy  Director  (Colleges) assists him in the matters of administration and planning concerning the colleges in the province.

2.  Director of Education (School)

The Director of Education (Schools) says it is evident from the organizational chart, that the Directorate of School Education has a wider jurisdiction. In the performance of his duties, the Director is assisted by the Executive District Officer of Education and several other officers.

3.  District Education Officer

The District Education Officers are responsible for the efficient operation of the District Education Office and for the success of the supervisory programmes. Their authority shall extend over the secondary schools and the sub-divisional education officers of their District. The District Education Officer is responsible for the effective delegation of responsibilities so that administrative duties are carried out by DDEO, ADEO, and ministerial staff. They pay attention to only essential paperwork and most of the time they spend on supervision and providing professional guidance to the teachers.

The District Education Officer normally visits the schools for a minimum of 3 days out of 6 days each week when the schools are in operation. The remaining three days should be sufficient to attend to the duties in the office if the delegation of responsibilities is effectively carried out.

4.  Deputy District Education Officer

If allowed the Deputy District Officer plans programmes for supervision of the schools and carries out the programmes in accompany with the A.D.E.O or alone under the guidance of the D.E.O. The DDEO assists the Assistant District Officers in the performance of their office duties.

    

Department of Education; Government of Balochistan

Introduction

As compared to other provinces the Department of Balochistan has a comparatively smaller administrative sector. However, the functions of various tiers of educational management in the province are more or less the same as in other provinces. The Department of Education comprises of Secretariat of Education and its components which include the Directorate of College Education.

Directorate of School Education, Bureau of curriculum and extension centres. The organizational charts of the Department of Education will help the reader to know the administrative setup and organizational functions of the Department of Education of Balochistan. However, a brief  description of some important administrative officers is given as follows:

Director of Education (Colleges)

The Director of Education Colleges is directly under the Secretary of Education and is responsible for the overall administration and supervision of College Education (male and female) in the province. Technical Education is also being supervised by the Director of Colleges. Education development and planning are initiated by the Director colleges which are finalized at the government level. In the Directorate the Director Colleges are assisted by several Deputy Directors and other officers whose offices.

In the field, Colleges are controlled and supervised by their respective principals. They are responsible for the academic and overall institutional discipline of their colleges and see that the work of imparting education to the students goes smoothly.

5.  Director of Education (Schools)

The Director of Education (Schools) is directly under the Secretary of Education and is responsible for overall control and supervision of education (male and female). Development programmes are initiated by the Director of Education and finalized at the Government level. In the performance of the function of his office, he is assisted by Deputy Directors,  Assistant Directors, Registrar,  and Department of Examination. Accounts Officer, Administrative Offices in the Directorate while District Education Officer, Headmasters, and Assistant District Education Officer assist him in the field.

The Deputy Director of the Directorate is responsible for the supervision and administration of various branches tinder them. They are assisted by Assistant Officers in the performance of their duties. In the field,  the boy's schools from Primary to High Schools in each district are under the control of District Education Officers. For administration and supervision of Girls Schools Divisional Education Officer (Female)  have been appointed in each Division. They are responsible for the supervision of Primary, Middle and High Schools in their jurisdiction. In the discharging of their duties, they are assisted by Assistant District Education Officers.

Scope, Need, Importance and Role of the Education in the Province of Sindha

 

Discuss the scope, need, importance, and role of education in the province of Sindh

Course: Educational Leadership and Management

Course Code  8605

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

Department of Education Government of Sindh

i)  Secretary Education

In Principle, the functions of the Secretary of Education and the Government of Sind are the same as those of Punjab or any other province of the country. However, depending upon  the  structure and peculiar needs and  traditions of the province, the Secretary’s responsibilities would be laid down as follows:

i)  Administrative Matters

As chief executive of the education secretariat, these administrative functions include; meetings with Deputy  Secretaries,  attending to matters relating to accounts, staff, development projects, policies, etc.

ii)  Professional Matters

As the professional leader of Directorates,  Boards, and Bureaus, the Secretary holds meetings with Directors of Education, and heads of the Boards and Bureaus. Principals of Colleges, Vice Chancellors etc. on issues relating to academic facilities and services of the institutions.

iii)  Ceremonial/Political Matters.

As a representative of the Governor of the province and head of the entire educational system in the province, the secretary has the responsibilities of meetings with the Governor, Chief Secretary, and other Secretaries, external visitors, of crucial interest to education, and attending functions and ceremonies.

iv)  Directors of Education (School Education and College Education,)

There are two Directors of Education (Schools) and (Colleges) education respectively in the province, and each one of them is the administrative head of a region. Each director has the responsibilities for (lie direction, dimension, and quality of primary, middle, and high school education as well as adult literacy and rural education programs. The director is acceptable to the secretary of Education and the provincial government for the overall development of school education in his region.

The job of the director of school education focuses on the following.

a)  Provision, promotion, and maintenance of good quality school education in the region.

b)  Ensuring proper development of all persons (pupils and stall) in school education in the region irrespective of sex, social background, or creed.

c)  Promotion of adult community literacy in the region

d)  Overall control of school  education and college education, technical education respectively

e)  General administration of the services and facilities for school education.

f)  Supervision of personnel instruction and facilities improvement in school and college education.

v)  District Education Officer

Within the region, the District Education  Officer (D.E.O)  is responsible for the administration of school education in a District. There are separate district Education  Officers for boys and girls schools, but their functions are identical.

The D.E.O. is about the almost focal and strategic post concerning primary, middle, and high school education in the district.  He is responsible to the Director of School Education of the Region for the effective organization and demonstration of the District education office and for the development of primary, middle, and high schools in the district. In addition,  the D.E.O. is responsible for the supervision and control of all stalls in the district as well as for the effective utilization of all resources (funds,  personnel, equipment, buildings,  lands. educational programs, etc.), available or provided for school education in the District.

vi)  Deputy District Education Officer

The Primary functions of a Deputy District Education Officer (D.D.E.O) depend to a large extent on the specific duties assigned to him/her by the D.E.O. There may be more than one D.D.E.O in a District.

vii)  Sub-Divisional Education Officer

Within each District, there are several Sub-Divisional Education Officers (S.D.E.Os). The S.D.E.Os are responsible within their respective sub-division for instructional and staff supervision in the schools. His/her supervisory powers extend to the middle and high school as D.E.O directs.

In addition,  S.D.E.O. has full responsibility for the administration and management of sub-divisional education officers. The S.D.E.O assists the D.E.O on all matters about the promotion of school education in the district of which his/her sub-division is a part.

Scope, Need, Importance and Role of the Education in the Province of Punjab

Discuss the scope, need, importance and role of the education in the province of Punjab

Course: Educational Leadership and Management

Course Code  8605

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

 Pakistan is a Federation of four Provinces-Punjab, Sindh,  Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Baluchistan. According to the constitution, education is on the concurrent list, therefore policies are formulated at the national level i.e. Federal level and implemented at the provincial level but under the devolution of power programme, education has become the subject of district government and the provincial government is only responsible to facilitate and coordinate the district government for effective implementation of national and provincial education policies and programme respectively.

The Provincial Departments of Education are counterparts of the Federal Ministry of Education. In provinces, ministers for education are in charge of the  Provincial Ministries of Education.  Within a province, the Minister for  Education is responsible for policy matters concerning the department. He conducts the business of the department in the Provincial Assembly and submits cases to the Chief Minister to seek his approval on important decisions. The minister keeps the provincial Governor informed about important developments in the field of education.

 

Department of Education, Government of Punjab

The subjects allocated to the Education Department, Government of the Punjab include:

i)  School, College and university education,

ii)  Coordination of schemes for higher studies abroad

iii)  Grant of scholarships,

iv)  Education of handicaps,

v)  Promotion of scientific research, art and literature,

vi)  Production and distribution of education and scientific films,

viii)  Libraries,

viii)  Service matters, except those entrusted to services and General

Administration Department and District Governments.

See the organizational chart of the Department of Education, Government of the Punjab.

i)  Director Public Instruction (Colleges) Secondary Education and Elementary Education.

a)  They advise the  Provincial Government in the formulation of education policies relating to college education secondary school education and elementary education respectively and also see that the approved policies are implemented in their true sense and spirit.

b)  They assess the needs of the masses concerning the opening of new colleges, secondary schools elementary and primary schools and improvement of existing institutions in the province. They also direct for the preparation of development schemes/plans for approval of the Government.

c)  They also direct the preparation of the annual budget regarding expenditure of college, and school education and ensure that they are carefully and economically operated.

d)  They guide the heads of subordinate offices and institutions by paying personal visits for the removal of defects and bottlenecks in the smooth administration and functioning of the institutions.

e)  They are responsible for the effective enforcement of administrative,  financial and discipline rules in institutions and their subordinate offices.

ii)   Director Curriculum Research & Development CentreHis responsibilities are as follows:

a)  Control and supervision of the Curriculum Research and Development Centre.

b)  Planning of research projects.

c)  Planning of curriculum development

d)  Supervision of research projects, curriculum formulation and development by Deputy Directors and Research Associates.

e)  Planning and control of the financial aspects of the Curriculum Research and Development Centre.

f)  Planning and control of the financial aspects of the  Curriculum Research and Development Centre

g)  Liaison with the Ministry of Education. Provincial Curriculum centres. Universities, Boards of Secondary Education Directorate of Staff Development, Provincial Institute of Teacher  Education, Text-Book Board, UNICEF and Punjab Education Department.

h)  Administration of the Curriculum Research and Development Centre.

iii)  Autonomous Bodies

The following are the autonomous Bodies which are under the Department of Education:

i)  There are Six universities in the provinces plus there are four general universities like the University of Punjab, Lahore; the Bahauddin Zakaria. University, Multan, The Islamia University, Bahawalpur, Fatima Jinnah Women  University,  Rawalpindi and two professional universities. The University of Engineering  &Technology Lahore and Texila Rawalpindi. These Universities function as autonomous bodies of higher learning in tile province.

ii)   Boards of Intermediate & Secondary Education

At present there, are eight Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education at Rawalpindi, Sargodha, Gujranwala,  Lahore, Multan, Faisalabad, Dera Ghazi Khan and Bahawalpur. The exclusive function of the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education is to hold Secondary School Certificate and Intermediate Examination and award certificates. They also hold examinations from Adeeb, Aalim and Faazil certificates in Urdu, Persian and Arabic languages.

iii)  Board of Technical Education

There is one Board of Technical  Education in the Punjab. Its main responsibility is to hold examinations for associate engineers, diplomas in various technologies and SSC examinations. It also formulates the curriculum for these examinations.

iv) Text-book Board

The Punjab Textbook Board is responsible for the printing of textbooks for class 1-I

v)  District Education Officers (Male-Female)

a)  Duties of Drawing and Disbursing Officer in respect of his/her own office.

b)  Financial control of the budget of primary, Middle and High Schools in the District.

c)  Planning and development work of the district.

d)  To assist/guide the department in respect of academic matters.

e)  To attend all other matters as District Head of the education sector i.e. college education secondary education and elementary education respectively.

vi)  Deputy Education Officers

They assist the District Education officers in all matters and inspection of schools.

vii)  Assistant Education OfficerThey perform the following duties:  inspection,  supervision, and guidance of primary Schools.

viii)  Director Staff Development

He arranges refresher courses to guide the teachers in the new methods of teaching. He is an appointing authority in respect of incumbents in NPS-1 to NPS-15 in respect of his office. He controls the teaching staff in elementary colleges. He also arranges training programmes for the heads of institutions and district and Tehsils heads of education department.

Importance of Log Book, Cash Book, Fee Collection Register

 

Discuss the importance of a log book, cash book, and fee collection register.

Course: Educational Leadership and Management

Course Code  8605

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

Log Book

Educational rules require also the maintenance of a log book. The logbook is a record of events, and as such it furnishes material for a history of the school. It should contain mention of special events, the introduction of new text-books, apparatus, or courses of instruction, and plan of lessons approved by the inspectors, the visits of the Inspecting Officers and other distinguished persons interested in education, closure, or changes in the working hours of school on account (if epidemic diseases, and any oilier deviations from the ordinary routine of the school. or any special circumstances affecting the school, that may deserve to be recorded for future reference or for any other reason.  The logbook is a school diary. It should contain only statements of facts and no expressions of opinion on the work or conduct of teachers, or remarks as to the efficiency of the school. The entries in the logbook should be made by the headmaster, as occasion may require. It is a permanent record for future reference.

Admission Register

The Admission Register is one of the most important school records, and the headmaster is personally responsible for therein. Alter satisfying himself that, the information furnished by the parents in the application for admission to the school is correct, the headmaster should state at the bottom of the form whether the pupil was admitted or rejected. All application forms received should be serially numbered and filed separately for reference. In the case of a pupil seeking admission after a course of private study a careful investigation concerning the pupil's previous educational career, as declared by the parent or guardian, should invariably be made before making admission.  The headmaster should resist the pressure or importance of parents to admissibility children by evasion of the rule.  Admission of pupils migrating from outside the jurisdiction of the local educational authority should not be made, even though the candidates may be eligible according to their transfer certificates until the certificates have been countersigned by the educational officer who should have administrative control over the school issuing the certificates,  and until the equivalence of standards has been determined. No such pupil should be admitted to a class higher than the first-year class when two or more classes constitute one unit from the point of view of the course of instruction.

Entries in the Admission Register should be made as 50011 as a pupil is admitted or, at any, rate, before the close of the day; and all the necessary particulars. as provided for in the register, should be noted. No admission or re-admission made at any pail of the year should be left out of the register. Successive numbers should be given to the pupils on admission, and each pupil should retain this number as long as he remains in the school. But a fresh serial number should be given to admissions each year; and whenever the admission number of a pupil is quoted, it should be given in the form of a fraction, with the scar to Inch the serial number belongs as the denominator thus,  54/55-56.  If a pupil leaves a school and rejoins it with a leaving certificate issued by another school, a new entry should be made in the register. But a  pupil,  whose name was removed for default in payment of tuition or other fees, or for continued absence, need not be given a fresh admission number if lie returns to the school on the same terms or within three months of the removal of his name;  but his original admission number should be given to him. In such cases, the collection of the re-admission fees should invariably be noted in the fee collection register and a brief note made against his number in the admission register to indicate the month or year of collection of the readmission fee. This entry may be briefly made thus: R.A. Nov.

No name should be removed unless a pupil applies for and has been granted a leaving certificate, or has been continuously absent for four weeks without permission, or has been a defaulter in the payment of fees till the end of the month during which they were due or has been dismissed as unworthy of continuing in the school. When a name is removed for any reason, the date of the last attendance should be entered in the admission register, with the cause of leaving if that is known.

In recording the date of birth of pupils in the admission register the exact day, month, and year of birth should be carefully ascertained and noted in the register. This date should be retained throughout the pupils’  educational career and should not be altered without the permission of the educational authority in charge of the institution. This entry as the date of birth is very important, as it is often required as evidence in important connections.

It should be desirable in large schools to prepare an alphabetical index of pupils admitted during the year for convenience of reference. Such an index may be prepared after all the admissions for the year have been made. At the end of each year, when the admissions for the year are over, an abstract should be prepared to show how many of the pupils admitted during the year left with leaving certificates, how many without certificates, and the number remaining in the school. In cases of pupils who leave the school without paying all or part of the fees due a remark should be made against their names in this register, so that a fee which is due may be recovered if and when they apply for leaving certificates. According to the departmental rules, the admission register should be preserved Permanently

Cash Book

A cash book is an important initial record in which details are entered of all financial transactions of the school occurring from day to day. It should be a bound volume, and the pages should be carefully numbered in print. The above form, indicating the number of columns and particulars to be noted in each column, is suggested for adoption:

In, column 1, the site on which the cash is received or paid is entered. Columns 5 and 8, marked L.F., are to show the number of pages of the subsidiary register where the corresponding entry appears. For instance, if on 1 September 1994, a sum of Rs. 1 580 is received as cash on account of salary and is credited to the cash account, there will be a corresponding entry in the salary book on a certain page. It is the number of this page in the salary book that is to be noted in the LF., column 5 of the cashbook. Similarly, the pages of the sports or Reading-room Fund Account on which the expenditure on sports of the reading room is noted will be entered in column 8. It should be clearly noted that all transactions to which a headmaster is a party in his official capacity must, without any reservation, be brought to account in the school cash book; and all money received should be paid in full, without the least possible delay, into a government treasury or the Bank, as the case may be: The term  “cash”  includes specific, currency notes, cheques, demand drafts, and remittance transfer receipts.

Whenever money is received a receipt must be issued, and the number of the receipt issued must be entered in column 4. Similarly, payments made from out of cash should be entered in the payment column, i.e. column 6, in the order in which the payments are made, the number of the voucher obtained from out of cash should be entered in the payments being noted in column 7. All transactions relating to the school, such as salary, fees, and fines, should be entered in this register. The cashbook should be written up from day to day,  the entry relating to each item of receipt and expenditure being made at the time of transaction. The balance at the beginning of each day called the opening balance, should be brought forward on the receipt side, as well as all the sums received in the day. The balance at the end of the day is called the closing balance, and it is entered on the payment side. It should be noted that  what is a  closing balance at the end of a  day is the opening balance at the beginning of the next day. After the day’s transaction is over, the account should be closed by striking the balance.

The balance should always be a plus. In no case should there be a minus balance. The particular items (head of accounts) working up to the cash balance at the close of the last working day of the month should be given in the manner detailed hereunderThere must be an agreement between the entries in the cash hook and the corresponding entries in the subsidiary registers namely, Contingent register, Games account register, Union account register, Admission fee register, Medical fee register, as also with the remittances and withdrawals in the passbook and the copies of the challans.

After closing the account for the day, the cash on hand should be counted by the head of the institution,  which should satisfy himself that it agrees with the book balance: and the day’s business should be closed with this dated signature. Failure to do this involves discrepancies and incorrect accounting. If any transaction is omitted from the cashbook on the day it takes place, it should be accounted for on the day the omission is noticed, with necessary remarks as to the omission.

The abstract of receipts and expenditures for the month and details of Union and Games fees, etc., collected, remitted, and spent during a month should be submitted to the inspecting officer, charge of the institution in the case of a  government institution, or to the management in the case of a private school, on or before the 4th of the month succeeding that to which the accounts relate.

A general ledger, containing a condensed and classified record of all the financial transactions in the form prescribed by the educational authority or management, facilitates the preparation of monthly and annual accounts. It gives an abstract of income, expenditure, and balance regarding each of the funds referred to in the cashbook. Entries may be made in the general ledger after each day’s transactions have been closed and entered in the cashbook and detailed ledgers

Importance and Role of the AV Aids and Library

Discuss the importance and role of the AV aids and library.                                   

 

Course: Educational Leadership and Management

Course Code  8605

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

Audio-Visual Aids

An outstanding development in modern education is the increased use of supplementary devices by which the teacher through the use of more than one sensory channel helps to clarify, establish, and correlate accuracy, concepts, interpretations, and appreciation; increases knowledge; rouses, interest and even evokes worthy emotions and enriches the imagination of children.

Learning takes place at three levels-direct experiencing, vicarious experiencing, and symbolic experiencing. Thus, audio-visual materials are quite helpful in instruction. They supply a concrete basis for conceptual thinking; they give rise to meaningful concepts to words enriched by meaningful associations. Researchers have also recommended that in education we should appeal to the mind chiefly through the visual and auditory sense organs since 85 % of our learning may be absorbed through these,

i)  The Value of Audio-Visual Aids to Learning

Audio-visual aids are potent starters and motivators:

 When the child finds learning made easy, interesting, and joyful with the help of sensory he feels motivated. He 'cannot but attend to an interesting procedure going on before him. Direct, concrete, contrived,  dramatized experiences add zest, interest, and vitality to any training situation. As a  result, they enable students to learn faster,  remember longer, gain more accurate information, and receive and understand delicate concepts and meanings. Thus, learning becomes meaningful, enjoyable and effective.

ii)  Audio-visual aids give variety to classroom techniques:

They generally represent a rest from the traditional 'activities of the school. While using them, the child feels like experiencing something different. Variety is always attractive to the child as well as to the adult. Audio-visual aids provide a change in the atmosphere of the classroom. They allow some freedom from the formal instruction of the traditional type. While using sensory aids, the pupils may move about, talk, laugh, question, and comment upon, and in other ways act naturally as they used to do outside the classroom.

The attitude of the teacher should also be very friendly and cooperative. In this way, schoolwork is motivated when;  pupils work because they want to do it and not because the teacher wants them to do it.

iii)  Many of these aids provide the child with opportunities to handle and manipulate: 

opportunity to touch, feel, handle, or operate a model, specimen, picture, or map; pressing a button or turning a crank gives an added appeal because it satisfies, temporarily at least, the natural desire for mastery and ownership.

iv)  Audio-visual aids supply the context for sound and skillful generalizing:

Books lack the specificity, the warmth,  indeed some of the unutterable poignancy of concrete experiences. Through direct, purposeful, first-hand experiences and semi-concrete audio-visual experiences, we can supply the context for sound and skillful generalizing.

v)  Audio-visual aids educate children for life in this modern complex world:

There was a time when life was very simple-children learned through direct experiences the rudiments of knowledge. But ours is a complex world. We live in a pushbutton age when comfort has a terrific appeal, but there is no easy road to learning. There is no magic osmosis; effective learning is still the old-fashioned formula of nine-tenth perspiration and one-tenth inspiration. Naturally,  therefore,  more must be done to determine how teaching is accomplished easily and speedily. More is needed today than before.

vi)  Audio-visual aids can play a major role in promoting understanding: 

These aids can bring about mutual understanding and appreciation of cultural values and ways of living among the different nations of the world. Enlightened and sympathetic attitudes can be developed among school children through this media. Films and radio programs can be exchanged among different  countries. Colored slides on works of different countries lead to mutual appreciation of Eastern and Western cultural values.

To conclude in the words of Mckow and Roberts, “Audio-visual aids, wisely selected and intelligently used, amuse and develop intense and beneficial interest and so motivate to the pupil' learning. This properly motivated learning means improved attitudes, permanency of impressions, and rich experience and ultimately more wholesome living”

 

The Library

The importance of a library in a school is being realized now. The work of the school is to give the student knowledge of necessary things and to bring about such an all-round development of the student that he can lead a successful life. The Span of a man's life is not so big that he can learn everything through practical experiences. We can learn from the various experiences gained and accumulated by our ancestors. These 'experiences have been recorded in various books so that they may not perish. Man saves a lot of his own time with the help of the vast store of wisdom and experience accumulated by his forefathers and handed over to him as a legacy.  Knowledge of these experiences facilitates his work of acquiring new knowledge. Hence a library is a necessity (or a school and sufficient attention should be directed towards its proper organization, utilization, and development.

i.  Utility of the Library

Students cannot acquire knowledge only through textbooks or classroom lectures. They should refer to other books also, for then only will their knowledge widen. The best thing would be that a teacher should create an interest in each student in his subject and give the names of important hooks for reference. In this way, the students will learn to acquire knowledge themselves. The teacher should try to inculcate in the students varied interests that cannot be fulfilled only through class lectures or textbooks.

The library is of great help in the fulfillment of their wishes, ambitions, and inclinations, for it provides ample opportunities for acquiring knowledge. The knowledge gained through the class lectures of teachers may be easily forgotten after some time but that which the student acquires himself through self-study will be remembered by him even after leaving the school.

 

Students have different tests at different stages of life and when he can read he likes to read books according to his need and taste. The entire environment of the school contributes towards education and the library is of great help in creating a suitable environment for education. The library may help develop different tastes in the students. After reading one book the desire for another is created, thus a reading habit is formed.

The library does the work of a teacher for the students, It would not be wrong to say that the defects of classroom teaching can be rectified to a great extent through the library because the teacher cannot teach from the point of view of the interests of every student not can he develop his various interests fully. This is only possible through the library. The teacher should encourage students to read books according to their interests.

ii.  Organization of the Library

The aims of a library may be fulfilled only when it is well organized and the selection of books is made properly. The following things should be considered while organizing the library:

1.  The aim of the library is to enlarge and consolidate the knowledge acquired in the classroom.

2.  In a library there should be books according to the age, ability, and interests of the students.

3.  A library should help build up a suitable environment in the school. For this, there should be a reading room in the library where the students may sit and read.

4.  A library should help develop the knowledge and intelligence of students.

5.  The library should help enlarge the knowledge and help the work of both the students and the teachers.

The utility of a library depends upon its proper organization, which includes the distribution of books, their arrangement the situation of the library, etc. A library may be properly utilized only when all this is done. It should not be situated, in such a place, where the atmosphere is not peaceful. For this, it should be remembered that it is not situated near the lower classes. In schools, having doubles storied buildings; the library should be on the second floor.

Sufficient sitting places for the students should be provided. The room should be large enough to accommodate at least 15 percent of the students of the school. The yearly and monthly publications should be so arranged that the students might take them out to read as they wish and then replace them. The librarian should be able to give information about the books asked for by the students.

At present a library is not properly utilized in most of the schools. The library exists only in name and the students cannot easily get books from there. Books from these libraries are purchased without any reference to the interests abilities and standards of students. The principal does not even know what type of books is there in the school. Besides, in most of the school, the librarian is appointed from amongst the teachers and he has to teach also. If he is busy in teaching, how can lie take sufficient interest in the library'? He does not pay any attention to the proper management of the library and tries to limit the number of books taken by the students as far as possible. Such a library is quite useless. No taste for self-study can be developed in the students through such a library. Hence it is necessary to introduce reforms in school libraries.

It will be better if an experienced or trained person is appointed as a Librarian. If this is not possible, an interested teacher should be entrusted with this work. The teacher who is given this responsibility should get some consideration concerning the teaching load. Besides, it teacher-librarian should be given some extra payment in proportion to the work to be done.  This teacher should have all the necessary information concerning the various subjects and books. The books should be arranged in such a manner that the student himself may know what books he should read on a particular subject. This will be possible if the books are arranged according to classes and subjects, but this can be done easily only if the teachers of particular subjects also realize their responsibility. The teacher in a particular subject should assist in the arrangement of books. Apart from this the method of issuing books should be easier. If the assistance of some students in the class is taken, probably this job will be facilitated and the students will also get an opportunity to learn the ways of management and gain information about books.

Students of higher class can derive great benefit if the books are arranged according to subjects. The teachers of these subjects should inform the students about the books on the subject and encourage the students to read them. The distribution and issue of books should be done properly. There should be a rule of keeping a hook for a fixed period, for then only will the students get equal opportunities.

iii.  Class Library

There should be a central library in the school, but besides this, if there are class libraries, it will be easier for the students to get books from them. The class teacher is familiar with all the students in the class and he can guide the students about the books suitable for them. In the class-library books should be selected according to the abilities and interests of the students in the class.  Class libraries enable the students to get books easily and to avoid a waste of time.  Besides, the teacher by telling about different books helps to develop the student's varied interests. Class libraries will prove very useful for lower classes because at this stage the students are not of the age to have a complete knowledge of different subjects nor do they have any interest in this. Besides, in lower classes onIN1 the class-teachers can tell the students which books on different subjects are suitable for them. In the class library, the students should be given the facility of choosing the books for themselves.

Some students get books issued from the library but they often return them unread. Hence the teacher should find out whether the student has read the book or not. It will be good if a record is maintained showing the number of books a student reads during the year. All the hooks, that a student reads, should be listed on a page: which should also indicate the date of issue and return. Thus the teacher will be able to create a taste for reading in that student who does not have such a taste. The teacher should also see that the home task assigned by them should be as may require the student to read books from the library.

The student should have such notebooks in which they may note down the titles of the books they read summary of the book as also their own ideas about the same. The student should be provided with an opportunity to discuss in the class the books they have read. A student who properly reads the largest number of books in the year should be rewarded. The students must make a summary of the books read because if the important facts are not noted down they will soon be forgotten. It is necessary for the teacher;] to have knowledge of those books, that the students read, then only he will be able to understand the viewpoint of the students and participate in the discussion with them.

iv)  Classification and Arrangement of Books

The books in the library should be properly arranged and classified as they have as great an importance as the library itself. The importance does not consist in storing a large number of books as in having suitable hooks in a proper order. In this connection, attention should be directed towards the utility of books. For this, the teachers must consider the contest of the hooks. These books should be according to the capacity and ability of the student can understand a hook he feels encouraged to read other books as well.

The significance of a library does not lie in possessing such books of great authors, that the student cannot understand, but in the collection of such books, which the students of different levels can fully utilize. There should be more than one copy of the books, which are useful from the point of view of the students. It is found in some schools that the teachers who are preparing for some examination get those books for the library, which they need and which is neither up to the student nor of any use of them.  In the school library, there should not be a book for the teachers also but these should not be purchased from the funds for the books for students.

The following things should be considered in the collection of books.

1.  The books in a  library should be according to the interests, ages, and abilities of the students.

2.  At the time of collecting books it should be remembered that they should develop the knowledge of the students.

3.  The books should be such that they may be easily understood by the student and may develop in them the power of thinking and reasoning.

4.  The books should be useful to both the teachers and the students. After collecting the books these should be classified according to the subject, ability, interest, age, and class of the students in such a way that they may be utilized. The librarian should, with the help of other teachers in different subjects and classes, write down separately in a register the names of books on the different subjects and for different classes.  In this way, the students will easily know the names of necessary books and get them without difficulty. Thus they will also be able to make* full use of the hooks. At present our students cannot make full use of the school library. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, the library is not well organized and the books are not classified and arranged properly. Secondly, the students do not have any taste for reading books nor do they adopt the proper method of reading. It is necessary in the interest of the students to remove all these defects.

The principal should purchase the necessary hooks for the library because the library will prove useful only when its stock of hooks increases. It will be better if the schools earmark an amount for the library and do not decrease it in any way. The next question is how to decide how the arc of the hook is to be ordered. For this, the principal should form a committee of teachers, the librarian, and a few students. In this way, full attention can be directed towards enriching the library.

v)  Reading Room

Along with the library a reading room is also deemed necessary. There should be sufficient place for the students to sit and read in this room. There should be proper arrangements of Light and air in a library. In the reading room, there should the newspapers, magazines, etc. so that the students may read them and be updated. In the reading room a copy of the school magazine consisting of articles, stories, riddles, and jokes written by the students, others also get inspiration to write these. Only such magazines should be ordered for the reading room, which may cater to the interests of the students and help in the formation of their character.

If along with a library, there is a museum also, it will be an ideal thing.   These museums should belong to the school and articles of historical value beautiful paintings and sculptures should be stored

Purpose of School Discipline | Criteria for Student Classification

 

Discuss the purpose of school discipline and criteria for learners' classification

 

Course: Educational Leadership and Management

Course Code  8605

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

 Purpose of School Discipline

The modern conception of discipline is a  very broad and inclusive one. It does not recognize the difference between mental and moral behavior for the purpose of control, no, in fact, for any other purpose. “The much and commonly lamented separation in schools between, intellectual and moral training, between the acquiring of information and growth of character, says Dewey, “is simply an expression of the failure to conceive and construct the school as a social institution, having social life and value within itself.” Every experience–intellectual, moral, civic, and physical has a value from the point of view of a pupil’s development as a member of society; and, conversely, the pupil’s social experiences have an effect on his personal development. In fact, the individual mind is conceived of “as a function of social life–as not capable of operating by itself but as requiring continual stimulus from social agencies and finding its nutrition in social purpose.”

The whole of the pupil’s life in the school  –  all his intellectual, social moral, and physical activities, so far as they are carried out in cooperation with others and are directed towards the realization of certain purposes – is disciplinary. The essential purpose of school discipline is the development in the pupils of attitudes, habits, and ideals of conduct through the medium of the social life of the school, organized on a cooperative basis and inspired by the higher ethical teachings of religion.

The purpose of discipline is to help an individual to acquire knowledge, habits, interests, and ideals which conduce to the well-being of himself, his fellow, and society as a whole. If this purpose is to be realized the school should be reconstructed on the lines of a democratic society in which membership implies the right of full and free individual development and conscious pursuit of common ends in a cooperative spirit, each member contributing to the common good by his special gifts. Life in a school thus organized becomes similar to, and continuous with, life in a democratic society, and discipline becomes co-extensive with the whole of school life.

  

Criteria for Student Classification

i)  History (Some Plans of Students Classification)

Since the purpose of school is to serve the needs of pupils, a major responsibility of the administrator is to organize the school and classify pupils to facilitate the achievement of this purpose. Even before schools were divided into grades, this adjustment problem was present. Dividing schools into grades helped solve some problems related to textbooks, facilities, materials, and methods, but at the same time, another problem was created. This new problem is the “lock step” system.

The “lockstep” system, including what is known as “grade standard”, has made it very difficult to meet the needs of individual pupils. Too often administrators have been content to make the individual try to adjust to the school – that is, to the teachers, methods of instruction, courses, grades, and standards of a particular grade or subject of adjusting the school to the pupil. Individual differences of pupils within any age group, subject class, or grade, make it necessary for the administration to provide some means for respecting those differences. Many innovations in curriculum, teaching methods, and organization have been tried. A few of these will be discussed here.

Winnetka Plan:

Around 1920, a plan of individual instruction for elementary school children within a grade was inaugurated at Winnetka, Illinois. The curriculum for each grade was divided into two parts – the common essentials and the group activities. The common essentials  –  the knowledge and the skills considered necessary for all pupils  –  were divided into units or “goals”.

Unit Plan:  

Another means of individualizing classroom work is the unit plan of teaching. The units of work are organized around a comprehensive and significant aspect of our environment of science, art, or conduct. The unit plan is a teaching procedure and requires no changes in school organization. There have been many adaptations of the unit method, such as the project, activity, and problem assignments. These methods are distinct departures from the traditional subject-matter recitation type of teaching. The unit method of teaching has had a great influence in elementary and secondary schools by focusing attention on the organization of the subject matter to meet the needs of individual pupils. The unit method has also had an influence on the curriculum being offered in many schools. Efforts have been made continually to change the curriculum in the schools to meet the needs of all youth.

Techniques of Instruction: 

Adjustments of the instructional program to meet the needs of the individual are possible not only through a changed curriculum but also through techniques of instruction. The following suggestions relate to instruction for meeting individual needs:

1.  Develop units on life problems rather than on abstract subject matter problems.

2.  Teach to focus on the satisfaction of needs recognized by the learners.

3.  Provide adequate counseling and guidance services.

4.  Utilize more fully teaching resources such as films, radio, television, teaching machines, and the local community environment.

5.  Use a wide variety of printed materials.

Summer School:  

Many school districts operate summer schools as a means of adjusting the schools to the pupils. These schools, however, are operated primarily for students who have failed or for those who wish to make additional credits to complete high school in three years. Some elementary and high school pupils attend summer school because they have not measured up to the

standard of the particular grade or subject. How well children succeed in summer school after having done poorly in the regular term is a question.  Some educators doubt the advisability of sending pupils to summer school because of failure in the regular term. Most summer schools emphasize such subjects are music, art, sports, and games, but in the last few years, there has been a pronounced trend toward the inclusion of more academic subjects, such as mathematics, science, and foreign languages.

Grouping:  

Grouping students by some means other than chronological age has been of interest to many educational leaders for the past three decades. It is rather unusual to find a professional book that does not have a treatise on homogeneous grouping. In most cases, homogeneous grouping has meant grouping pupils according to mental ability or achievement in subject matter.

Arguments for homogeneous grouping usually include the following:

1.  Homogeneous groups are usually taught by the same methods as heterogeneous groups.

2.  Grouping saves the teachers’ time and energy.

3.  More subject matter is covered in the same period.

4.  Poor students are not discouraged.

5.  Specially trained teachers can be employed for poorer pupils.

6.  A homogeneous group can be taught as an individual.

7.  The Brighter pupils are encouraged.

8.  Loafing on the part of superior pupils is reduced or eliminated.

There certainly are arguments against homogeneous grouping. Among such arguments are the following:

1.  No basis for grouping has been developed which is sufficiently objective.

2.  Unwholesome competition may be engendered.

3.  People are not strictly groped in their life occupations according to ability.

4.  Status distinctions, characteristic of a class society, may be fostered.

5.  Groups cannot be formed that are homogeneous in each curriculum area because the abilities of a single student vary from subject to subject.

6.  No practical way has been found to group based on special ability.

7.  Grouping according to ability often causes jealousy and resentment on the part of the pupils and parents.

Non-graded Elementary School:  

the non-graded elementary school is a movement that is slowly gaining supporters. This plan of classifying students is attributed to the results of the child study movement, which revealed that children differ in many ways, and to studies revealing the negative effects of non-promotion upon pupil achievement and adjustment. A non-graded elementary school classifies pupils according to levels rather than according to grade numbers. The levels are usually based on reading ability and usually consist of ten to twelve levels in the first three grades. The pupil progresses through the levels at his own rate without the usual stigma of lack of promotion or failure.

A pupil may complete the three years of work in two years or may take as long as four years. This plan has been used much more extensively in the primary grades than in the intermediate grades.

The non-graded elementary school offers three major organizational advantages in classifying students:

(1) A unit span of years that is adaptable to the lags and sports normally accompanying the  development of the child;

(2) progress level that permits a child to pick up after an absence from school at the point where he previously left off

 (3) a time range that permits children of approximately the same chronological age to remain together while progressing at different academic rates suited to individual capacities.

 

ii)  General Criteria for Student Classification

The grouping has been a feature of schools in all countries. In earlier times, a typical small community had about enough people of school age to  fill one classroom. The teacher handled all ages and all subjects as well as janitorial duties. When the student population grew too large for one teacher a second was hired and the students were divided between them.  Age was the common selection factor.  All students six through twelve years of age were assigned to one teacher, and all those from twelve up were assigned to the other. As the population grew, so did the number of classroom groups. Grouping based on age usually made no sign to the first grade, seven-year-olds to the second, and so on. If there were too many six-year-olds for one teacher, two first-grades were established.

The major purpose of grouping is individualization. Students are grouped so that the range of individual differences, and academic and social characteristics, the teacher has to contend with is narrowed. Age was used originally as the only selection factor because it does correlate with social characteristics and was all that was available to indicate academic characteristics until the introduction of standardized achievement testing in the early twentieth century. Age continues to be the major selection factor.

iii)  Common Patterns

Ungraded Grouping: 

Grade levels are abandoned. The early one-teacher schools were ungraded because they contained students of all grade levels in one classroom. Contemporary ungraded-grouping patterns usually distinguish between lower elementary and upper elementary, ungraded primary and ungraded intermediate. Students are assigned to an ungraded primary for at least their first three years of schooling. They are promoted to the intermediate group based on age, social maturity, academic ability, or some combination of three factors.  A school might have three or more ungraded primary classrooms. The teacher in a primary classroom might stay with the same group of students for the entire three years, thus assuring that the teacher becomes well acquainted with students.

Inter-Classroom  Subject Grouping:  Students are grouped according to the subject they are studying. This is the most common grouping pattern in junior and senior high schools. It is used in elementary schools when teachers trade for different subjects, such as when the two fourth-grade teachers agree that one will reach reading to both classes while the other teaches all the mathematics. During two hours, teacher A has reading Class A for the first hour and reading with Class B for the second hour. Teacher B follows the opposite schedule for mathematics. The pattern is also followed when special teachers are hired to teach all the music, art, and physical education.

Inter-Classroom Ability Grouping:  

Students are assigned to classrooms according to their performance on intelligence and achievement tests. For example, students might be assigned to one of the two sixth-grade classrooms based on their scores on a general achievement test. All those scoring grade level or higher are assigned to one classroom while all those scoring from grade level or below are assigned to another. A high school might use placement tests to assign students to different English and Mathematics courses, or even to totally different tracks. The assignment to ability groups may be for the entire day or only for special subjects, as when disabled readers or gifted students are pulled from their classes for instruction by special teachers. The term homogeneous grouping is sometimes used to refer to this grouping pattern.

Split-Day Grouping:  

Students are assigned to a split-day schedule as a means of reducing class size for critical subjects. It is commonly used for reading in the primary grades. For example, half of the class comes to school at 8:30 p.m. and receives reading instruction until 9:30 a.m. when the second half of the class arrives. At 1:30 p.m. the first half of the class leaves school, and reading instruction is provided the second half from 1:30 p.m. Until 2:30 p.m. then they go home. By having only half of the class present during reading instruction, the teacher can provide more individual help.

Intra-Classroom Ability Grouping:  

Within the classroom, students are grouped based on ability. The pattern is most common in reading where student are given a reading achievement test and then assigned to one of three groups according to their performance-a “high group,” a “middle group,” and a “low group”. This grouping pattern has been used at all grade levels from kindergarten through high school.

Special Ability  Grouping:  

Students are assigned for short periods and, based on their ability, to a special teacher. For half an hour each day a remedial reading teacher might work with students below a certain reading level and an enrichment teacher might work with students above a certain level. Remedial programs for disadvantaged students may use several intellectual, academic, and social factors in selection as might enrichment programs for gifted students.

Intra-Classroom Individualized Grouping:  

Instruction in the classroom is provided for one student at a time. Regarding programs called “individualized reading” (Veatch 1966) follow this pattern. The pattern has become more popular in the last ten years because of the availability of published, self-instructional materials. The best use of a continuous-progress selection of students into individual groups varies widely and sometimes none is used; students just work alone.