Experimental Research Designs

 

Discus experimental research designs in detail

Course: Research Methods in Education

Course Code 8604    

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

 ANSWER

 

Experimental Research

J.W. Best (1992, P.110) describes experimental research as the description and analysis of what will be or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions.

According to Carter V. Good, and Douglas E. Scates (1954, P.809), "Experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in which the investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or group of children is subjected during the period of inquiry, and observes the resulting achievements."

S.P. Sukhia, P.V. Mehrotra, and R.N. Mehrotra (1991, P.227) describe the experimental method as the application and adaptation of the classical method of the science laboratory. It is the most exacting and difficult of all methods and also the most important from the strictly scientific point of view.

The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable. However, experimentation in education is useful to determine and evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of educational aims and objectives through the measurement of outcomes. It serves as the basis for the formulation, execution, and modification of educational policies and programs.

It is further used to ascertain the effects of any change in normal educational programs and practices.

An experiment calls for the satisfaction of three basic interrelated conditions i.e. Control, Randomization, and Replication.

1.  Control is the basic element in experimentation. The influence of extraneous factors that are not included in the hypothesis are prevented from operating and confusing the outcome which is to be appraised.

Three types of controls are exercised in an experiment. These include:

i)  Physical controls.

ii)  Selective controls.

iii)  Statistical controls.

2.  Randomization is a very difficult to exercise complete control, efforts are made to assign cases in the experimental and control groups randomly.

3.  Replication implies conducting several sub-experiments within the framework of an overall experimental design.

Experimentation in education is not a perfectly precise method. Many variables in education are extremely difficult or even impossible to control. The basic condition of other things being equal is difficult for fulfillment in educational research. All experiments in education are ultimately experiments with children who for ethical reasons must not be subjected to conditions that may harm them. There are boundaries of a moral character for experimentation that must not be infringed.

There are many areas in which experimental studies in education can approximate strictly empirical research. For example, the teaching of spelling through different methods and, the difference between the effect of the authoritarian and the democratic setup in education are problems that have been handled scientifically through the experimental approach.

The following are the major steps in experimental research.

1.  Planning the experiment.

2.  Conducting the experiment.

3.  Reporting the results.

Furthermore, the experimental designs are classified as Single Design, Parallel Design, and Rotational Method. The details of all such designs are discussed below:

1. Single Design.

This type of experiment is carried out by comparing the growth of a single individual or group under' two sets of conditions. The experimenter observes the performance of the individual or the group before and after the introduction of the experimental variable. Let us say the experimenter is interested in evaluating the reading speed of a group of sixth-class students as affected by training. He will adopt steps like testing the group, allowing for a period of transition, and testing the group again.

2.  Parallel or Equivalent Group Design. 

In this two or more groups of subjects equivalent in all significant aspects are selected. One of these groups serves as the 'control group' and the other as 'experimental group'.

3.  Rotation Group Experimentation. 

This method involves the rotation of 'instructional factors of the experimental and control groups Pt equal intervals. This method is used to obtain control of pupil factors when groups cannot be thoroughly equated. It also neutralizes the teacher variable. Of the three designs of educational experimentation, this is the most valid and at the same time most complicated.

Need and Scope of Education Research

 

What is the need and scope of education research?   

Course: Research Methods in Education

Course Code 8604    

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

 ANSWER

 Need of Research

The following points will justify the need for educational research.

1.  Rapid Expansion and Democratization of Education. 

The need for education research to improve educational policies and practices is being realized increasingly. Education research has assumed greater urgency because of the very rapid expansion and democratization of education throughout the world during the last decade.

2.  Technological Changes.

The rapid technological changes have brought an increase in educational problems and both laymen and educators have felt that they can no longer depend upon trial and error. No amount of experience gathered and no amount of wisdom collected in the form of casual observations, traditions, or recommendations of groups or individuals can ever promise rapid progress and improvement as is needed all over the world.  Therefore, educationists are constantly searching for effective methods of instruction, more satisfactory techniques of evaluation, richer learning materials, more efficient systems of administration, and better human relations. Just as the sociologists, the anthropologists, and economists are carrying on research, so is the case with the educationists.

3.  New Demands on Education. 

With educational research, it may not be possible to develop new curricula, new teaching methods, and new teaching materials to meet the new demands placed on the educational systems of the world. Robert M.W. Travers in 'An Introduction to Educational Research' has. stated that educational research forms an indispensable basis for any  “national organization of education, especially  as regards curricula, syllabuses, and methods as well as for financing education, for its planning, and for the building of schools.”

4.  Interdisciplinary Approach to  Education. 

Education is a growing science and its foundations are to be explored for a study of the subject as an interdisciplinary approach. It is, therefore, almost imperative to study education in its proper perspective. Philosophy is the cornerstone of the foundation of education and psychology provides the bricks and mortar for laying the foundation of education on a scientific basis. Educational research is thus an indispensable development for its growth. Thus we can hardly afford to think of education in isolation today.

5.  Knowledge Explosion and the  Need for Educational Research. 

The world has witnessed an unprecedented explosion of knowledge. Since education depends on a corpus of knowledge, the need for research arises to study the changes in various disciplines and to make necessary adjustments in educational philosophy, programs, and policies. The means, methods, and machinery of education need to change in the light of a progressive social milieu, and changing economic, political, and social set-up.

6.  Education and Productivity. 

Education and productivity are positively

correlated and education needs planning according to manpower needs which in turn is based on research.

7.  Scarce  Resources and Optimum Development. 

It is through research only that we come to know how best to utilize the available resources for achieving the best results.

8.  Spirit of Research is Needed Everywhere. 

A spirit of inquiry adds to the competence and scholarship of the researcher.

9.  Research is Needed to Keep out of Fixed track. 

Research enables an individual to change his conservative outlook. It keeps us out of fixed track by making us mentally alive.

 

Scope of Research in Education

The importance of educational research in national development is now being increasingly realized all over the world. This is apparent from the educational progress in developing countries, particularly from the fact that education has become more and more effective, dynamic, and purposeful in countries where research has flourished. It is based on research that the function of education has been broadened. Educational research has a great bearing on the role of education in introducing social and economic charges.

Six Major Possibilities of the Utilization of Research Towards National Development

Six major possibilities for the utilization of research toward national development can be identified. They are:

1.  Educational research throws up valuable background data from which the planner can make his own assessment of the prevailing situation, especially of the magnitude, complexity, and ramifications of the problem he has to handle.

2.  Carefully designed analytic studies can illuminate critical areas of policy. The overt and covert dimensions of a given problem emerging in such studies provide the planner with a measure of foresight to deal with them effectively and efficiently.

3.  These studies open up the possibility of testing the validity of the assumptions that must, of necessity, be made by the planner in setting his proximate and ultimate objectives.

4.  They enable the planner to estimate the possible consequences and cost of the different choices available to them in determining the path for the attainment of their goals.

5.  Diagnostic studies suggest where and why particular projects gearing.  Their unattended consequences are also brought to light.

6.  Wide dissemination of educational research findings increases general awareness concerning the situation to be met as well as the policy designed for this purpose. This may enhance the credibility of particular policies and prepare the people for them. It may also help towards building up popular pressures for the reformulation of particular policies or for weeding them out altogether.

Concept of Research in Education

 

Explain the concept of research in Education. 

Course: Research Methods in Education

Course Code 8604    

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

 ANSWER

Concept of Research in Education:

According  to J.W. Best (1992), research is an  “intellectual activity which brings to light new knowledge or corrects previous error-and misconceptions and adds in an orderly way to the existing corpus of knowledge.”

The terms 'research and scientific method' are often used synonymously and 'research is considered to be more formal' systematic intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. There are seven elements of the scientific process namely:

i.  Purposeful Observation;

ii.  Analysis – Synthesis;

iii.  Selective Recall;

iv.  Hypothesis;

v.  Verification by Inference and Experimentation;

vi.  Reasoning by:

(a) Method of Agreement,

 (b) Method of Disagreement,

(c) Method

of Concomitant Variation, 

(d)  Method of Residues, and

(e) Joint Method of

Agreement and Disagreement;

vii.  Judgment.

It might be helpful to highlight some of the accepted connotations of research. These include:

1.  Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem that would be possible facts, analyses these critically, and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of a mere exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a

desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only 'what' but 'how much', and measurement is therefore, a central feature of it.

2.  Research 'per se' constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems;

formulating a hypothesis or suggested solution; collecting, organizing, and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

3.  The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method, interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of educational problems; conversely, any systematic study designed to promote the development of education as a science can be considered educational research. Best (1992) thinks,  “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of result or conclusions.”

4.  Moreover, research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry, or a frame of mind. It asks questions that have not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure, is not a mere theorizing, rather it is an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have assembled.

5.  Research is also called a kind of human behavior. However, one general definition of research would be that which refers to the 'activity' of collecting information in an orderly and systematic fashion. Research is literally speaking a kind of human behavior, and 'activity' in which people engage. In education, teachers, administrators, scholars, or others engage in educational research when they systematically assemble information about schools, school children, the social matrix in which a school system is determined, the characteristics of the learner, or the interaction between the school and pupils.

6.  Educational research is normally considered as scientific research. Educational research is meant here 4ie the whole of the efforts carried out by public or private bodies to improve educational methods and educational activity in general whether involving scientific research and a. high level or more modest experiments concerning the school system and educational methods.

7.  The Webster's International Dictionary proposes a very inclusive definition of research as  “careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or 'principles; diligent investigation to ascertain something.”

8.  D. Slesinger and M.  Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as  “The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols to generalize to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether the knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

9.  While discussing the nature and significance of educational research some scholars say,  “Educational research is that activity which is directed towards the development of the science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the most effective methods”.

10.  Some scholars considered research as a process of developing process. According to them  “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, answers to questions, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field of education; therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The mere collection and tabulation of facts is not research, though it may be preliminary to it on even a part of thereof”.

Define Descriptive Research and what are the Major Forms

Q 5: Define descriptive research and what are the major forms?  Strengthen your answer with examples of Case Studies, Casual Comparative studies, and correlation.

Course: : Research Methods in Education

Course Code  8604

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER

1. Descriptive research:

It is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject. In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens. For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any investigative details on “why” the patterns exeunt. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the objective of the study. 

2. Characteristics of Descriptive Research:

The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the research, and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity. Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

 3. Quantitative research:

Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows one to collect and describe the nature of the demographic segment. 

4. Uncontrolled variables:

In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

 5. Cross-sectional studies: 

Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections 
belonging to the same group are studied.

 6. Basis for further research:

The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types of research methods to be used for the subsequent research.

The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods

One of the goals of science is description (other goals include prediction and explanation). Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound — they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not determine cause and effect. There are three main types of descriptive methods:  observational methods, case-study methods, and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media or when reading a  research study on your own. 

Observational Method

With the observational method animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. 

The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations. 

Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation. 

Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important regarding the advancement of scientific knowledge.

 Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions. 

There are two serious problems with case studies —  expectancy effects and a typical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing a typical individual may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity. 

Survey Method

In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. For the survey to be both reliable and valid the questions must be constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend. 

Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions. Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type. 

Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically. 

In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods. 

It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause A? 

Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the truth.

A causal-comparative design is a research design that seeks to find relationships between independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred. ... Many similarities exist between causal-comparative research and correlation research. 

"An important difference between causal-comparative and correlation research is that causal-comparative studies involve two or more groups and one independent variable, while correlation studies involve two or more variables and one group." ... b) manipulates at least one independent variable.

CORRELATION RESEARCH 

To be carried out to help explain important human behaviors or to predict likely outcomes. Purposes of 
correlational research 

Explanatory studies It is to clarify our understanding of important phenomena by identifying relationship among variables. Always investigate several variables they believe are related to a more complex variable such as motivation or learning. Types of correlational research.
Selecting a problem Choosing a sample Selecting or developing an instrument  Determining procedures.

Collecting and analyzing data Interpreting result Basic steps Teacher about to study the causes of the amount of  descriptive behaviour display in class. Students having difficulty in mathematics subject. Teachers are about to study the causes of students not performing in the subject.
Example What Investigator attempts to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among a group of individuals. Sometimes viewed, along with correlation research, as a form of associational research, since both describe conditions that already exist.

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

Two groups of individuals differ on some variable ( such as teaching style) and then interrupt to determine the reason for or the result of this difference. Example Group Differences The group difference variable in a causal-comparative study is: Either a variable that cannot be manipulated (such as ethnicity) or one that might have been manipulated but for one reason or another has not been (such as teaching style) Example: in the effects of a new diet on very young children 

It is one of the types of research methods that use a comparison between cause and effect. Comparisons can establish whether something can be explained by the same causes or not. The difference can be a conclusion but not the cause of the difference. Interpretation of this kind of method is limited because these studies are of value in identifying possible causes of observed variation in the behavior patterns of students. This kind of research can be used in prediction about problem such as, the different achievements of student in the class. If it 
about teaching methods, it can be research either it is related with art multimedia method or the self-learning methods.

Case Study Method.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews) Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations &interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen. The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e. the patient’s personal history).
                             
The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (homothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies. Amongst the sources of data the psychologist is likely to turn to when carrying out a case study are observations of a person’s daily routine, unstructured interviews with the participant herself (and with people who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well. The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation, e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group. 
                             
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. Freud's most famous case studies include Little Hans (1909a) and The Rat Man (1909b). Even today case histories are one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines, they can give a vivid insight into what those who suffer from mental illness often have to endure. Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and reporting descriptive information about a particular person or specific environment, such as a school. In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life. 

To produce a fairly detailed and comprehensive profile of the person, the psychologist may use various types of accessible data, such as medical records, employer reports, school reports, or psychological test results. The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person's friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself. This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist,  therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e. someone with a professional qualification. There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e. abnormal) behavior or atypical development. The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The client also reports details of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study and interprets the information. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always make clear which information is a factual description and which is an inference or the opinion of the researcher. 

Related Topics

Define Descriptive Research and what are the Major Forms

What Is Experiment And How You Will Conduct Experimental Research

Concepts of Educational Research, it's needed in Education

Describe Different Types Of Research By Method and Why And Where We Use These Types 

What Is Experiment And How You Will Conduct Experimental Research

Q.4 What Is an Experiment And How Will Conduct Experimental Research, What Will Be The Threats To Internal And External Validity To Minimize These Threats? 

Course: : Research Methods in Education

Course Code  8604

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

Answer:

Non-Experimental & Experimental Research

Alright! It's time to learn something using research by … performing a non-experimental study? 

Wait, wait, and wait! Is it possible to have a non-experimental study? Is that sort of like sugar-free candy? Is it something that you're supposed to have that is replaced by something that makes you scratch your head?  

Before we discuss research designs, though, you need a brief walkthrough of some of the terms I am going to throw at you. 

A predictor variable is the portion of the experiment that is being manipulated to see if it has an effect on the dependent variable. For example, do people eat more Gouda or cheddar cheese? The predictor variable in this is the type of cheese. Now, every time you eat cheese,  you'll think about predictor variables. When I say subjects, I just mean the people in the experiment or the people being studied.

 

Experimental research is when a researcher can manipulate the predictor variable and subjects to identify a cause-and-effect relationship. This typically requires the research to be conducted in a lab, with one group being placed in an experimental group, or the ones being manipulated, while the other is placed in a placebo group, inert condition, or non-manipulated group. A laboratory-based experiment gives a high level of control and reliability.

 Non-experimental research is the label given to a study when a researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the predictor variable or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation, observation, or interactions to come to a conclusion. Typically, this means the non-experimental researcher must rely on correlations, surveys, or case studies, and cannot demonstrate a true cause-and-effect relationship. Non-experimental research tends to have a high level of external validity, meaning it can be generalized to a larger population Experimental and non-experimental research design 

By The U.S. Food and Drug Administration [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

 

Experimental research design

Experimental research designs are based on a clear hypothesis, the purpose of the research is to confirm or refute the validity of the hypothesis. Experimental research designs have an independent variable, a dependent variable, and a control group. Most of the experiments are conducted in a laboratory in a controlled environment. The purpose of the experiment is to find out the causation and experimental studies are causal studies. These studies answer what, why, and even how questions in the research. The experimenter can manipulate the variables and he has a control group and a placebo. The control group receives the treatment that the experimenter wants to test and the placebo group is tested without any treatment. The changes in the results of both groups are compared. The experimenter repeats the test in the same environment more than one time to get the most valid results. There are basically three different types of experiments: controlled experiments, quasi-experiments, and field experiments. 

Methodology 

The experimenter determines two groups to perform an experiment: one group is called the experimental group and the other group is called a placebo group. The experimental group gets the treatment and the placebo does not get any treatment. The experimental group is similar to the control group except that the control group does not get any treatment while the experimental group gets the treatment. The experimenter repeats the test twice or thrice to increase the validity of the results. 

Non-experimental research design 

Non-experimental research designs are carried out in natural settings, it does not involve manipulation of the situation, event, circumstances, or people. Surveys,  case studies, correlation studies comparative studies, and descriptive studies are some of the examples of non-experimental research design. Longitudinal studies are also non-experimental research and the purpose of these studies is to study a situation, people, or phenomenon over some time to observe the change.

Methodology

In non-experimental research, the researcher does not manipulate the variables to be tested and therefore he cannot ascertain the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. A causation is established in some of the nonexperimental studies but not in all of them. The causation is established by determining that a certain variable has an impact on another variable. It can also compare the results of two or more groups or people on one or more variables 

Steps in Experimental Research 

The basic steps involved in conducting experimental research will be presented in this module. 

Learning Objectives: 

List the steps that are used in conducting experimental research. 

•  Describe each step involved in the process. 

The following YouTube wide, Experimental Design, offers a visual representation of the process of conducting 

experimental research and serves as an introduction to the steps discussed in this module. 

The following list of steps explains the process of conducting experimental research in more detail. Researchers 

should follow these steps to ensure the integrity of the process. 

1.  Select a topic. This involves simply identifying an area of interest or general subject. 

2.  Identify the research problem. Given the topic or subject, the researcher must now identify specific problems or questions that relate to the subject. The researcher may be familiar with the subject and may already know the problem they want to research. If the researcher is new to the topic, it may be helpful to examine literature and previous studies, as well as talk to other researchers. The problem selected should be important to the field and 

be of significance to others in the discipline. 

3.  Conduct a literature search. Once the research problem is identified, a literature search should be conducted before proceeding to design the experiment. It is helpful to know what studies have been performed, the designs, the instruments used, the procedures, and the findings. This information will guide the researcher and help them create a project that extends or complements existing research. 

4.  Construct a hypothesis. In this step, the researcher states the research question as a hypothesis. This provides the basis for all other decisions in the process and therefore, it is a critical step. 

5.  Determine the design of the research. The researcher should review the hypothesis and verify that an experimental design is the appropriate research design needed to answer the question. Additional information regarding different types of experimental research design will be covered in the next module. 

6.  Determine the research methods. In this step, the researcher will identify and plan the details necessary to conduct the research. This includes identifying the test subjects, materials, data collection instruments and methods, and the procedures for conducting the experiment. 

7.  Conduct the research and test the hypothesis. The experimental procedures will be carried out in this phase. 

8.  Analyze the data. Experimental research data lends itself to a variety of potential statistical analyses. The appropriate analysis is determined by the research question and the type of data.

Surveys 

The survey is the most common method by which sociologists gather their data. The Gallup poll is perhaps the most well-known example of a survey and, like all surveys, gathers its data with the help of a questionnaire that is given to a group of respondents. The Gallup poll is an example of a survey conducted by a private organization, but sociologists do their own surveys, as does the government and many organizations in addition to Gallup. Many surveys are administered to respondents who are randomly chosen and thus constitute a random sample. In a random sample, everyone in the population (whether it be the whole US population or just the population of a state or city, all the college students in a state or city or all the students at just one college, etc.) has the same chance of being included in the survey. The beauty of a random sample is that it allows us to generalize the results of the sample to the population from which the sample comes. This means that we can be fairly sure of the behavior and attitudes of the whole US population by knowing the behavior and attitudes of just four hundred people randomly chosen from that population. Some surveys are face-to-face surveys, in which interviewers meet with respondents to ask them questions. This type of survey can yield much information, because interviewers typically will spend at least an hour asking their questions, and a high response rate (the percentage of all people in the sample who agree to be 

interviewed), which is important to be able to generalize the survey’s results to the entire population. On the downside, this type of survey can be very expensive and time-consuming to conduct.

Experiments

Experiments are the primary form of research in the natural and physical sciences, but in the social sciences, they are for the most part found only in psychology. Some sociologists still use experiments, however, and they remain a powerful tool of social research. The major advantage of experiments, whether they are done in the natural and physical sciences or in the social sciences, is that the researcher can be fairly sure of a cause-and-effect relationship because of the way the experiment is set up. Although many different experimental designs exist, the typical experiment consists of an experimental group and a control group, with subjects randomly assigned to either group. The researcher does something to the experimental group that is not done to the control group. If the two groups differ later in some variable, then it is safe to say that the condition to which the experimental group was subjected was responsible for the difference that resulted.

Observational Studies

Observational research, also called field research, is a staple of sociology. Sociologists have long gone into the field to observe people and social settings, and the result has been many rich descriptions and analyses of behavior in juvenile gangs, bars, urban street corners, and even whole communities. 

Observational studies consist of both participant observation and nonparticipant observation. Their names describe how they differ. In participant observation, the researcher is part of the group that she or he is studying, spends time with the group, and might even live with people in the group. Several classical social problem studies of this type exist, many of them involving people in urban neighborhoods (Liebow, 1967; Liebow, 1993; Whyte, 1943). In nonparticipant observation, the researcher observes a group of people but does not otherwise interact with them. If you went to your local shopping mall to observe, say, whether people walking with children looked happier than people without children, you would be engaging in nonparticipant observation. Similar to experiments, observational studies cannot automatically be generalized to other settings or members of the population. But in many ways, they provide a  richer account of people’s lives than surveys do, and they remain an important method of research on social problems. 

Existing Data

Sometimes sociologists do not gather their own data but instead analyze existing data that someone else has gathered. The US Census Bureau, for example, gathers data on all kinds of areas relevant to the lives of Americans, and many sociologists analyze census data on such social problems as poverty, unemployment, and illness. Sociologists interested in crime and the criminal justice system may analyze data from court records, while medical sociologists often analyze data from patient records at hospitals. Analysis of existing data such as these is called secondary data analysis. Its advantage to sociologists is that someone else has already spent the time and money to gather the data. A disadvantage is that the data set being analyzed may not contain data on all the topics in which a sociologist may be interested or may contain data on topics that are not measured in ways the sociologist might prefer. 

The Scientific Method and Objectivity

This section began by stressing the need for sound research in the study of social problems. But what are the elements of sound research? At a minimum, such research should follow the rules of the scientific method. As you probably learned in high school and/or college science classes, these rules for formulating hypotheses, gathering and testing data, drawing conclusions, and so forth help guarantee that research yields the most accurate and reliable conclusions possible. An overriding principle of the scientific method is that research should be conducted as objectively as possible. Researchers are often passionate about their work, but they must take care not to let the findings they expect and even hope to uncover affect how they do their research. This in turn means that they must not conduct their research in a manner that helps achieve the results they expect to find. Such bias can happen unconsciously, and 

the scientific method helps reduce the potential for this bias as much as possible. 

Related Topics

Define Descriptive Research and what are the Major Forms

What Is Experiment And How You Will Conduct Experimental Research

Concepts of Educational Research, it's needed in Education

Describe Different Types Of Research By Method and Why And Where We Use These Types 

Describe Different Types Of Research By Method| Why And Where We Use These Types

Describe different types of research by method. Why and where do we use these types (Descriptive, historical, and co-relational research to discuss the educational phenomena?

Course: : Research Methods in Education

Course Code  8604

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER

Research Methods/Types of Research: 

Research can be classified in many different ways based on the methodology of research, the knowledge it creates, the user group, the research problem it investigates, etc.

Basic research 

This research is conducted largely for the enhancement of knowledge and is research that does not have immediate commercial potential. The research is done for human welfare, animal welfare, and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental research. The main motivation here is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. According to Travers, “Basic Research is designed to organize the body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.” 

Such research is time and cost-intensive (Example: An experimental research that may not be or will be helpful in human progress). It is used to solve a problem by adding to the field of application of a discipline.

Applied Research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real-life problems. This research is generally conducted on a large-scale basis and is expensive. As such, it is often conducted with the support of some financing agency like the national government, public corporation, World Bank, UNICEF,  UGC, Etc. According to Hunt, “applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems” for example:- improving agriculture crop production, treating or curing a specific disease, improving the energy efficiency of homes, and offices, how communication among workers in large companies be improved.

Problem-oriented research 

Research is done by the industry apex body to sort out problems faced by all the companies. Eg:- WTO does problem-oriented research for developing countries, and India's Agriculture and Processed Food Export Development Authority (APEDA) conducts regular research for the benefit of the agri-industry.

• As the name indicates, Problem-identifying researches are undertaken to know the exact nature of the problem that is required to be solved.

• Here, one clarification is needed when we use the term ‘Problem’, it is not a problem in true sense. It is usually a decision-making dilemma or it is a need to tackle a particular business situation.

• It could be a difficulty or an opportunity. For e.g.:-Revenue of the Mobile company has decreased by 25% in the last year. The cause of the problem can be any one of the following:

• Poor quality of the product.

• Lack of continuous availability.

• Not so effective advertising campaign.

• High price.

• Poor caliber/lack of motivation in salespeople/marketing team.

• Tough competition from imported brands.

• Depressed economic conditions

• In the same case, suppose the prime cause of the problem is a poor advertising campaign & secondary cause is higher pricing.

• To tackle the problem of poor advertising, we have to answer questions like, what can be the new advertising campaign, who can be the brand ambassador, which media, which channel, at what time & during which program advertisements will be broadcast.

Problem-solving

This type of research is done by an individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing research and market research are applied research. For eg:- Videocon International conducts research to study customer satisfaction levels, it will be problem-solving research. In short, the main aim of problem-solving research is to discover some solution for some pressing practical problem.

Quantitative Research

This research is based on numeric figures or numbers. Quantitative research aims to measure the quantity or amount compares it with past records and tries to project for future periods. In social sciences, “quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships”. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories, or hypotheses about phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides a fundamental connection between empirical observation and the mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics and commerce.

Descriptive research

It is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject. In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens. For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then cover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any investigative details on “why” the patterns exist. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the objective of the study.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research:

The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the research, and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

Quantitative research:

 Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows one to collect and describe the nature of the demographic segment.

Uncontrolled variables:

In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

Cross-sectional studies:

 Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.

The basis for further research:

 The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types of research methods to be used for the subsequent research.

The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods

One of the goals of science is description (other goals include prediction and explanation). Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound — they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not determine cause and effect.

There are three main types of descriptive methods:  observational methods, case-study methods, and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media or when reading a research study on your own.

Observational Method

With the observational method animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations.

Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation
.
Laboratory observations

These are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important regarding the advancement of scientific knowledge.

Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.
There are two serious problems with case studies —  expectancy effects and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity.
Survey MethodIn survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. For the survey to be both reliable and valid the questions must be constructed properly.

Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend. Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions. Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type: Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to
analyze statistically, but they seriously limit theresponses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically.

In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods.

It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause A? Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from

the truth

Historical Research

The searches were carried out next step was to build up a picture of the situation in each region for each of the three years using the “6 - I” model as a framework. This was done by combining the results of the searches ordered by category, sub-category, and year for each of the two regions and the national situation. This data was used as a basis to describe developments in that region from 1985 to 2005. As with the first round of data collection further refinement took place during the writing-up process, duplications and overlaps were identified and articles were reassigned to different categories as appropriate. The data collection process is summarised in Table 5. Stage Method Analysis First  Round Interviews with significant Data coded using NVivo with figures working in each region. 6-I model used as an overall conceptual framework. Second Round Regional newspapers scanned Data coded using Access for relevant articles for years database with 6-I  model

used as 1985, 1995, and 2005.

An example of this type of focusing question can be found in Jaana Porra, Rudy Hirschheim, and Michael S. Parks (2006): " What significant changes did the Texaco IT function face over its existence? " However, these types of open-ended questions often provide descriptions only and, ultimately, do not satisfy the historian, whose main task is to explain past events and development and whose main focus is the question of Why  (see alsoHepsø et al. 2009; Toland and Yoong 2013; Bryant et al. 2013). The historian looks after the causes of events, the change that occurred, and the many consequences, both intended and unintended. Toland and Yoong (2013) comment that an important technique of historical research is to " listen for silences, " but, as a matter of fact, an argument from silence—argumentum ex silentio—is generally regarded as unreliable by historians. IS historians need to be aware of the questionable credibility of some sources.

Related Topics

Define Descriptive Research and what are the Major Forms

What Is Experiment And How You Will Conduct Experimental Research

Concepts of Educational Research, it's needed in Education

Describe Different Types Of Research By Method and Why And Where We Use These Types 

Concepts of Educational research,it's needs in Education

Discuss the concepts of educational research. Also, examine the needs and importance of research in Education.

Course: : Research Methods in Education

Course Code  8604

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER

CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY PURPOSE 

Introduction 

Educational research is classified into Basic research Applied research and Action research. The basic and applied research are differentiated by their purposes. The primary purpose of basic research is the extension of knowledge whereas the purpose of applied research is the solution of an immediate, practical problem.

However, some misconceptions have developed with the use of the terms basic and applied research. One such misconception is that basic research is complex and applied research is simple in its methodology. A related misconception is that applied research is often sloppy and haphazard but of great practical value, whereas basic research is precise and exacting but of no use in a real situation. 

Likewise, one type of applied research is action research. Action research is usually conducted by teachers and administrators to solve a specific problem or to provide information for decision-making at the local level. 

Efforts have been made in this unit to highlight the actual role played by basic research, applied research, and action research with their characteristics. 

1. Basic Research 

This type of research is also regarded as fundamental/pure research. It builds up broad generalizations, principles, and theories of education. It results in the discovery of useful concepts such as motivation, reinforcement, concept formation, etc. It is not concerned with day-to-day problems. 

The basic research has the following characteristics. 

1. It aims at developing educational theories and principles that will apply to a broad population. 
2. It requires expert training. 
3. It makes use of a wide range of methods to locate the research problem.
4. Highly specific hypotheses are developed. 
5. It involves careful attention so that error is reduced to the minimum. 
6. It calls for a complex analysis of data. 
7. The generalizations usually remain confined to books and research reports.

2. Applied Research 

This type of research is also called functional research. Education like Medicine is an applied science. Walter R. Borg (1987, P.11) has stated, “The primary function of research in education as in medicine--is to find improvements for education or medicine both to be understood as fields of human actions, not as fields of knowledge.” 

Applied research does not aim at solving the practical problems that are faced by teachers, educational planners, administrators, curriculum specialists, etc. Applied research deals with problems of practical value. Applied research is less rigorous than the basic research. 

Applied research involves both the classroom teacher and the research specialist. The comparison of applied versus basic research is discussed as under: 

It is argued that in a country having limited resources, research should be given a practical orientation. Researches that do not have apparent relevance to the solution of practical problems are considered an unnecessary luxury. The contrary point of view asserts that in the absence of sound analytical concepts, there are obvious limitations to the extent to which applied research is possible. Not only will the lack of conceptual refinement improvise analysis and limit methodological sophistication, but it will also result in a constricted perception of cause-and-effect relationships. 

Unless applied research is taken to mean the publication of facts through simplistic tables of percentages and averages, a job which can be done on the existing capital of the social sciences in Pakistan, there is no gainsaying the fact that basic research is an essential base for the development of applied research. Apart from the fact that basic research does not have application as its immediate goal, the two are deeply interrelated, particularly in the case of the social sciences whose concepts and theories derive from the analysis of social reality as an ongoing process. Research designed to diagnose social reality and to introduce correctives for the achievement of goals uses a theoretical base no less than it helps enrich it. 

Thus, the difference between basic and applied research is not as sharp as that between applied and theoretical social scientists. To illustrate, survey research can be taken as an example of ‘pure' applied research. However, a few survey researches do not lend themselves to generalizations germane to theory building. Whether such attempts are actually made depends upon the training and professional orientation of the researcher. In such areas of organizational performance, intergroup conflicts, or the administration of and response to social change, the opportunities for testing hypotheses and for theory building are enormous. Perhaps the seriousness with which the distinction between theoretical and applied research is made will be lost as more and more Pakistani social scientists acquire components in quantitative research methodology. Both basic and applied research has an important part in the development of the social sciences and must be supported. 

However, it would be of great interest to quote what William Wiersma (186, p13) has _ stated regarding basic and applied research, “The relation of theory and research is one of mutual contribution. Theory can point to areas in which research is likely to be fruitful, can summarize the findings of several specific studies, and can provide a basis for explanation and prediction. Research findings, on the other hand, can test theories that have been worked out, clarify theoretical concepts, and suggest new theoretical formulations or extend old ones. Moreover, the process of reciprocal contributions is a continuing, one, research stimulated by theoretical considerations may raise new theoretical issues, which in turn lead to further research and so on,... To conduct research without theoretical interpretation or to theorize without research is to ignore the essential function of theory as a tool for achieving an economy of thought. 

3. Action Research 

The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically to guide, correct, and evaluate their decisions and actions is called action research. 

There is no doubt that research work done by professional students of educational research is seldom noticed by the workers in the actual field of action. Now it is increasingly being realized that the practitioners of education must be involved in research work. Action research is a step ahead of the common sense approach. A good teacher does not merely depend upon tradition, or experience of others, or recommendations of expert bodies. In action research, he is deliberately more systematic and scientific in dealing with the problem. 

A useful definition of 'Action Research' is the research a person conducts to enable him to achieve his purposes more effectively. A teacher conducts action research to improve his own teaching. A school administrator conducts action research to improve his administrative behavior. 

Some people differentiate action research from applied research in as much as the former is confined to classroom situations and the latter probes into practical problems of greater complexity and wider applicability. There are eight aspects of the process of action research. These include the following: ‘. Self-dissatisfaction. The teacher feels dissatisfied with the situation. Identification of the problem. The teacher pinpoints the problem. Defining the problem. After identifying the problem, the teacher dennes the problem. Problem analysis. The teacher then locates the causes of the weakness. Action hypothesis. An action hypothesis is formed. 

RESEARCH IN EDUCATION: SIGNIFICANCE, NEED AND CHARACTERISTICS 

Research and progress. Significance of and need for education research. Educational research and scientific research their common characteristics. Special characteristics of educational research. Summing up. 

Research has proved to be an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress. There would have been very little progress, as we find it today, without systematic research. 

“The secret of our cultural development has been research. Pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering DC“ truths, which, in turn. lead to better ways of doing things and better products." 

“Research is a power of suspending judgment with patience, of meditating with pleasures, of asserting with caution, of correcting With readiness, and of arranging thought with scrupulous pain. Francis Bacon. 

All significant research leads to progress in some field of life or the other. Each year new products, new facts, new concepts, and new ways of doing things 'come into our lives due to ever-increasing significant research in the physical, biological, as well as the social and psychological fields. Research activity is no longer confined to the science laboratory. Even as the manufacturers, the agricultural experts, and the archaeologists enter research in their respective spheres so also, the sociologists, and anthropologists. economists and educationists. 

The goal of all research is progress and good life. In so far as good education is recognized as the basis of adequate individual and social development, the need for research, in education to improve educational practices and policies is being realized increasingly. Educationists are constantly searching for more effective methods of instruction, more satisfactory techniques of evaluation, richer learning materials, more comfortable physical facilities, more efficient systems of administrative organization, and so on. This search is assuming greater urgency because of the very rapid expansion and democratization of education throughout the world during the last few decades. Since the right of every individual to full development through education has been recognized "Where every country is aiming at providing universal education to its people in the ' Shortest possible time. As a result several new educational problems. never imagined 

Thus, it is not difficult to show that education research is extremely necessary and very worthwhile. But to the question is educational research and what are its characteristics?’ there may not be one agreed answer. It might be helpful to acquaint ourselves with some of the accepted connotations of the term educational research. “Research is considered to be' the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic' structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or conclusions.” 

“Educational research is that activity which is directed towards the development of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the most effective methods." 

Thus, as a result of research, there may be an improvement in teaching, administration, or human relations, or an increase in comparative, developmental, and historical knowledge and its philosophical, sociological, or psychological foundations. 

Related Topics

Define Descriptive Research and what are the Major Forms

What Is Experiment And How You Will Conduct Experimental Research

Concepts of Educational Research, it's needed in Education

Describe Different Types Of Research By Method and Why And Where We Use These Types