Educational Views of Ahmed Ibn-e-Muhammad Ibn-e-Ya’qub Ibn-e-Miskawayh | Introduction to Philosophy | Course code 8609 | B.Ed Solved Assignment |

QUESTION 

Enlist the educational views of Ahmed Ibn-e-Muhammad Ibn-e-Ya'qub Ibn-e-Miskawayh.

Course: Introduction to Philosophy

Course code 8609

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment 

ANSWER  

AHMAD IBN MUHAMMAD IBNYA`QUB -IBNMISKAWAYH

Ahmad Ibn Muhammad ibnYa`qub, surnamed Miskawayh, is also known as Abu 'Ali al-Khazin. Miskawayh appealed to Greek philosophy. He studied history, philosophical disciplines, and alchemy. He is recognized as an eminent theistic thinker, historian, moralist, and historian of Persia. The most significant part of Miskawayh's philosophical activity is devoted to ethics. Three important books of Miskawayh on ethics are Tartib al-Sa`adah, Tahdhib al-Akhlaq, and Jawidan Khirad.

IbnMiskawayh’s objectives and theory of education were based on the Aristotelian theory of education which specified intellectual, moral, and physical education aiming to produce good human beings from the social point of view and attaining eternal happiness and self-realization. Similar to Plato and Aristotle, Ibn Miskawayh believed that education is linked to statecraft. Therefore, he visualized an education system that could fit the people to perform the duties entrusted to them by the state. Like Aristotle, he presented the view that physical education must precede intellectual and spiritual education. To IbnMiskawayh, the goal of life was to combine human will with the Divine Will.

Proper education must, therefore, minister to the needs of the body no less than the aspirations of the soul. Thus asceticism was entirely unacceptable to him. Ibn Miskawaih emphasized that the need for religious education is therefore apparent because of aiming to combine human will and Divine Will. For IbnMiskawayh aim of religious education was not merely to shield against irreligion but to construct the conscience of the child.

In  “Tahdhib al-Akhlaq”, Miskawayh connected moral philosophy with psychology and stated it doctrine of the soul. In the history of philosophical thought, Miskawayh is one of the influential personalities among Muslims. He was unique from others due to his concern for ethics. Therefore, he was considered the first ethical thinker among Muslims. Miskawayh’s scientific output is not confined to the field of ethics and philosophy, but he also made notable contributions to history, chemistry, literature, and other subjects.

Miskawayh ‘s "Tahdhib Al-akhlaq" is considered the most famous book. In this book, he explained the education of young boys. According to Miskawayh, knowledge precedes action, and ‘moral happiness’ is happiness enabling the human being to live happily, following the requirements of virtue. Hence, human beings can attain personal happiness through intellectual effort, and endeavoring to acquire the sciences enabling their thought inclusive of all areas. For Miskawayh, ethics are very closely associated with the objective of education. Ethics as a philosophical study is considered a practical philosophy, which strives to decide what should be; so examining this field of study does not lead to philosophical reflection as a final aim, but rather it is used in practical life.

Miskawayh divided philosophy into two parts:

·         a theoretical part and

·         a practical part

According to Miskawayh, each part completes the other. He distinguished between philosophy and religion. He also distinguished between reason and faith. The famous book “Tahdhib al-akhlaq” (Refinement of character) of Miskawayh is a guide to practical conduct. It is considered a primary contribution to the field of ethics. In his philosophical writings, Ibn Miskawayh presents rational rather than scriptural arguments. Often associated by scholars with Neo-Platonist methods, the author makes frequent reference to Aristotle in discussing human nature, requirements for happiness, and the virtuous life. Miskawayh discussed the training of young boys and men.

In his writings, the word “tarbiya” or “tab has been for the training of young boys and men. The meaning of training primarily shows that obligatory training rests on adults, to impart training to young with desirable, morality, knowledge, customs, and behavior, and prepare them in a way to make them acceptable human beings of society.

Miskawayh provided rules for the preservation of oral health for the cultivation of character. These rules describe how different parts of the soul can be brought together into harmony, for the achievement of happiness. As doctors prescribe rules for physical health, the role of a moral philosopher is to prescribe rules for moral health. Moral health is founded upon a combination of intellectual development and practical action.

Ibn Miskawayh wrote on a wide variety of topics, ranging from history to psychology and chemistry. Still, in philosophy, his metaphysics seems to have been generally informed by a version of Neoplatonism. He avoided the problem of reconciling religion with philosophy.

However, Ibn Miskawayh's work on ethics is of a much higher order and does show evidence of considerable conceptual complexity. In his Tahdhib Al-akhlaq (Cultivation of Morals) he set out to show how we might acquire the right dispositions to perform morally correct actions in an organized and systematic manner. He asserted that the soul distinguishes us from other human beings and from things, from animals, and it uses the body and the parts of the body to attempt to come into contact with more spiritual realms of being. The soul is an independent and immortal substance that controls the body.

According to Miskawayh, humanity is in constant need of adapting to what he was brought up to and became used to in childhood, and also what suits him naturally. If he does not do this, he falls into the place of the worthless, and his connection with God is disconnected. This desolation is confirmed if a person continues in four characteristics:

•   Idleness, Laziness, and wasting life without work and with no human benefit;
•  ignorance and stupidity, caused by failure to investigate and exercise the soul with the teachings of wise men;
• Disrespect, which results from neglect of the soul when it pursues  desires and is unrestrained and seeks to commit sins and evil deeds
• The preoccupation arises from persistence in unpleasant deeds.·          

According to Miskawayh, changing the character of an adult is difficult, because he is nurtured and grown up with it, however, special conditions and self-realization of the extent of his corrupt morals can provide him the purpose for his change. For such a person, it is hoped that he will refrain from (evil) morals gradually and have recourse to the exemplary way by repentance and by keeping company with the good and the wise by the pursuit of philosophy. The reason behind his emphasis on the possibility of refining character purifying souls, and freeing the self from evil habits and the like, stems from his opinion about people, which is that they are either good by nature or good because of the law and learning.

Miskawayh said that good manners are as useful for boys as are also useful to older people; however, these are more useful to the young because they habituate them to the love of virtues and so they grow up accordingly. Afterward, it will not be hard for them to avoid evils, and later it will be easy for them to follow all the prescriptions of wisdom and the regulations of the Law (sharia) and Tradition (sunna). They become accustomed to keeping themselves from the temptations of wicked pleasures; they restrain them from indulging in any of those pleasures or thinking too much about them. They make them desire the high rank of philosophy.

Miskawayh said that when the soul of the boy is ready to accept training; there must be a concern for the boy, and he must be cared for, and not left to one who cannot do this training well or who does not have fine characteristics and excellent habits. According to Miskawayh, the soul has been divided into three faculties:

·         Appetitive,

·         Irascible, and

·         Rational

These faculties appear gradually, as the boys grow until they reach their perfection and are then called rational. Miskawayh also described some methods for the training of the soul. For Miskawayh, the psychological aspect is the most important. Equipped with a personal code of moral conduct, Miskawayh determined seven species of wisdom:

·                     Acuteness of intelligence

·                     Quickness of intellect

·                     Clearness of understanding

·                     Facility of acquirement

·                     Precision of discrimination

·                     Retention, and

·                     Recollection

Miskawayh described eleven species of courage:

•     Magnanimity,
•     Collectedness,
•      Loftiness of purpose,
•      Firmness, coolness, 
•     Stateliness, boldness,
•     Endurance,
•    Condescension,
•    Zeal, and
•    Mercy
•    Affability,
•     Righteousness,
•    Conciliatoriness,
•    Continence,
•    Patience,
•    Contentment,
•    Sedateness,
•    Piety,
•    Regularity,
•    Integrity, and
•   Liberality (which is further divided into six subspecies)

Miskawayh is essentially a historian and moralist. He has mentioned several abstract methods for the training of the soul. These ways include: 

Praise the boy for the good things he does which are acceptable to the adults, and also adults who do good deeds should be praised in his presence. All this emphasizes fine actions, whether performed by him or by adults, and by those considered to be an example for him.

Related Topics

Imam Ghazali's View About Teaching Philosophy

John Dewey's Philosophy of Education

Friedrich Froebel's Views Regarding Philosophy of Education

Curriculum Supported by Aristotle to be taught to Children

Discuss Platos' Idea of education

The Educational views of Ahmed Ibn-e-Muhammad Ibn-e-Ya'qub Ibn-e-Miskawayh

Educational Inmplications of John Dewy's 

Basic Concepts of John Dewey’s Philosophy of Education | Introduction to Philosophy | Course code 8609 | B.Ed Solved Assignment |

QUESTION 

Discuss the basic concepts of John Dewey’s philosophy of education.

Course: Introduction to Philosophy

Course code 8609

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment 

ANSWER  

JOHN DEWEY

John Dewey, the greatest of the pragmatists and generally recognized as the most outstanding philosopher his country has yet produced, made significant contributions to virtually every field of philosophy as well as to such other areas of inquiry as education and psychology. Active for 70 years as a scholar, he was a prolific writer publishing approximately fifty books and more than a hundred articles. Many of these have been translated into various foreign languages. New volumes are still coming out with more Dewey material, mainly correspondence, and books and articles on him are appearing at a rapidly increasing rate. 

Philosophy of Education

1.   Analysis of reflective inquiry. Perhaps the most important single emphasis of John Dewey is his insistence upon applying reflective or critical inquiry to problems or indeterminate situations. What is involved in problem-solving or thinking through a problem? What is critical inquiry? How does one apply intelligence to human affairs? Dewey's answer to these questions is outlined in its simplest terms in How We Think, and a more sophisticated version is given in Logic; The Theory of Inquiry. In a sense, the phases or steps in a complete act of reflective thinking afford an outline for each of his major works, and he had a lifelong concern with what is involved in reflective thinking. 

2.   View of experience. Experience is one of the central concepts in Dewey's thought, occurring and recurring throughout his writing. Though he finally concluded that he might have done better to use another term, many of his most important works are concerned with clarifying it- for example, his Casus Lectures: Experience and Nature or his Art as Experience or Experience and Education. For him experience constitutes the entire range of men's relations to, or transactions with the universe. We experience nature and things interacting in certain ways made up of experience. 

3.   View of Knowledge. Dewey rejects the traditional epistemology which sets up a knower outside the world and then asks about the possibility, extent, and validity of knowledge in general. He laughingly suggests that we might equally well have a problem with digestion in general- its possibility, extent, and genuineness—by assuming that the stomach and the food materials were inhabitants of different worlds. The significant problem is not how such a knower is somehow to mirror the antecedently real but rather how one set of experienced events is to be used as signs of what we shall experience under another set of conditions. 

The important distinction, moreover, is not between the knower as the subject and the world known as the object. Instead, it is between different ways of being in the movement of things, between an unreflective physical way and a purposive, intelligent one. 

In Dewey's view knowledge needs to be placed in the context of the problematic or indeterminate situation and reflective inquiry. Knowledge is more than immediate awareness or the presence of a set of sense data. Having qualities before us does not constitute knowing. Knowledge is always inferential, and the problem is how the processes of inference are to be guided to trustworthy or warranted conclusions. It involves operations of controlled observation, testing, and experimentation. It is a product of inquiry—the steps in a complete act of reflective thinking. Dewey liked Bacon's idea that knowledge is power and it may be tested by the promotion of social progress.

4. Conception of philosophy. In "The Need for a Recovery of Philosophy" Dewey declares that philosophy must cease to be "a device for dealing with the problems of philosophy" and become "a method, cultivated by philosophers for dealing with the problems of men". But the problems of man as he sees them cover a range broad enough to include in one way or another most of the traditional problems as well as many others. The method involves treating philosophy as vision,

imagination, and reflection; and though the clarifying process may show that certain epistemological problems are pseudo-problems, the fact that they are raised may point to genuine cultural crises. If the action at all levels needs to be informed with vision, imagination, and reflection to bring clarity to mind future possibilities about attaining the better and averting the worse, there is more than enough for philosophy to do. 

5.   Biologism. What is sometimes referred to as Dewey's biologism reflects:

•  His emphasis on the genetic point of view, and
•  His conviction is that inquiry has a biological matrix. 

He was interested in how ideas originate and become more complex, in the parallels between human responses and lower levels, and in the continuity of different species of organic life from the lowest forms to man. To understand the present situation, he held, we inquire into its specific conditions as well into its probable consequences. 

6.  Experimentalism. Dewey's experimentalism relates to his analysis of reflective inquiry for which hypotheses, prediction, and experimentation are central. An experiment is a program of action to determine consequences. It is a way of introducing intelligence into a situation. It is an intelligently guided procedure for discovering what adjustments an organism must make to its environment to ward off ill or secure goods. Experimentation for Dewey is relevant not merely on the individual biological level, but wherever planned reconstruction of a situation may help effect the desired transformation, for example, in social planning or in education. The more important the issue at stake, the more clearly is experimentation seen to be preferable to such alternatives as authoritarianism, simple guesswork or merely waiting for events to run their course. 

7.   Instrumentalism. Dewey's instrumentalism also stems from his analysis of reflective inquiry. Ideas are not copies, images, or visions of external objects but rather tools or instruments to facilitate an organism's behavior. They are instruments for operating on things or on stimuli. Things or objects are what we can do with them, and we can distinguish among them by the behavioral reactions they make possible. 

Truth, accordingly, is adverbial. It is a way ideas work out in practice. It is a matter of whether hypotheses lead to predicted consequences, an affair of verified predictions of warranted assertions. Dewey's instrumentalism encourages a new respect for instruments or means. The more we value ends or goals, in his view, the greater our attention to the means which may bring them about. The separation of goods into natural and moral or into instrumental and intrinsic may have the harmful consequence of making moral and intrinsic goods more remote from daily living besides encouraging us to think that we can have the intrinsic without having to concern ourselves with the instrumental. Viewing any good as merely instrumental, moreover, is fairly sure not to do it justice. 

8.   Relativism. Dewey's relativism is to be opposed to absolutism and is a way of stressing the importance of context, situation, and relationships. To take things out of relations is to deprive them of value and meaning. Absolutes are ruled out in his view, and unqualified generalizations are likely to be misleading. An economic policy or a plan of action is good relative to a specific situation which makes it desirable. A knife may be good for sharpening a pencil and bad for cutting a rope, but to speak of it without qualifications as good or bad is quite misleading.

 9.   Meliorism. In ethics, according to Dewey's account in Reconstruction in Philosophy, the emphasis should be placed on improving or bettering our present situation rather than upon good or bad in some absolute sense. The good, if one is to speak of the good rather than the better, is what will enable us to solve the problem or difficulty. Thus what is usually referred to as a moral end or standard becomes in this view a hypothesis as to how to overcome a moral problem. Since every problematic situation is unique, values are also unique; but if one is to specify an end, then growth, education, or problem-solving would be that end. Instead of treating the acquisition of skill and attainment of culture as ends, we should see them as marks of growth and means to its continuing difficulties or furthering growth.

 10.   Humanism.  Dewey's humanism stems from his acceptance of the Baconian view that knowledge is tested by the promotion of human intelligence based in good part on the experience of modern science for the sake of bettering the human situation. Supernaturalism and the usual dogmas of revealed religion have no place in Dewey's view. As he tells us in A Common Faith, the things of greatest value in civilization exist by the grace of the continuous human community in which we are a link and we have the responsibility of conserving, transmitting, rectifying, and expanding our heritage of values so that those who come after us may share it more generously and more securely. Our common faith draws its main stand from our attempt to carry out this responsibility. 

11.   Education and experience. Most of the major theses in Dewey's general philosophy find expression in his philosophy of education. Reflective inquiry is as central for education, in his view, as for any other phase of life or experience. Indeed, for him, education is a problem-solving process, and we learn by doing, by having an opportunity to react in real-life situations. In education not indoctrination, but inquiry is focal. Not simply amassing facts but learning to apply intelligence to problem-solving has a top priority. Education must be experimental without simply improvisation.

 The reconstructive purpose is as much at work in education as anywhere else in experience. As he says in Democracy and Education, "Education is a constant reorganizing and reconstructing of experience". Present experiences must be so guided as to make future experiences more meaningful and worthwhile. Though the value and the knowledge of the past are transmitted, this must be done in such a fashion as to broaden, deepen, and otherwise improve them. Criticism and not simply passive acceptance are demanded. 

Dewey equates education and growth. As teachers, we start with the child where he now is, with his present stock of interests and knowledge, and seek to help him expand and enrich both his interests and his knowledge and grow as a person in his community and his society. He learns to work responsibly for his own development and for social conditions which will encourage a similar development for all other members of his society. Education must not be simply a means to something else. It should not be merely preparation for the future. As a process of growth it should have its own enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding features at the same time that it helps further continued education, and, in Dewey's view, the test of our social institutions may be found in their effect in furthering continued education or growth. Dewey himself had considerable reservations over some features of "progressive education", but he continued to emphasize some of the strengths of the newer education as compared with the traditional outlook. His humanism and meliorism are richly exemplified in his account of the theory and practice of education. His philosophy of education stresses the social nature of education, its intimate and multiple relations to democracy, and its cultural significance. 

Aims of Education

According to Dewey the aim of education is the development of a child's powers and abilities. It is impossible to lay down any definite principle for a particular kind of development because this development will differ from one child to the next, in conformity with the unique abilities of the individual. The educator should guide the child according to the abilities and powers he observes in it. It is better, in Dewey's opinion, to leave the question of educational objectives unanswered. If a definite aim is ascribed to education, it may do very great harm by compelling the teacher to guide the education in a particular direction, not in keeping with the innate abilities of the child. 

In general, the aim of education is to create an atmosphere in which the child gets an opportunity to be active and contribute to the social awakening of the human race. From a pragmatic standpoint, education aims at creating social efficiency in the child. Man is a social being who must develop within the confines of society, outside which he cannot develop at all. For this reason, education must aim at creating social efficiency and skill. Pragmatic education aims at instilling democratic values and ideals in the individual, at creating a democratic society in which there is no distinction between one individual and another, each individual is completely independent and willing to cooperate with others. Every individual must be given the freedom to develop his own desires and achieve his ambitions. Every individual must be equal to every other member of society. Such a society can be created only when there is no fundamental difference between individual and collective interests. Hence, education should create cooperation and harmony among individuals, instilling democratic values in school-going children. 

In fact, the school itself is a miniature form of a democratic society in which the child undergoes various forms of development, of which moral education and development are the most important. Morality can be developed through active participation because such participation in the activities of the school trains the child in shouldering responsibility. This develops the individual's character and grants him social skills. Equality of opportunity in the school helps to develop boys and girls according to their own individual traits and inclinations. 

Pragmatic education is basically practical in as much as it aims at preparing the individual for future life in such a manner that he can fulfill his requirements and achieve contentment. Future life in the pragmatic sense implies not merely individual life but also social life. Dewey was critical of the contemporary modes of education because they tend to drive the child away from democratic life by giving advantages to a small section of society. It also lays more stress on books or formal teaching than is really desirable. This mode of teaching compels the educator to listen to long lectures which blunt his own mental powers. Hence, Dewey laid the foundations of a progressive education in the form of a Progressive School which aimed at establishing democratic values and developing the child's personality.

Related Topics

Concept of John Dewy's Philosophy of Education

Imam Ghazali's Philosophy of Education

Friedrich Froebel's Views Regarding Philosophy of Education

Curriculum Supported by Aristotle to be taught to Children

Discuss Platos' Idea of education

The Educational views of Ahmed Ibn-e-Muhammad Ibn-e-Ya'qub Ibn-e-Miskawayh

Educational Inmplications of John Dewy's 

What kind of curriculum Aristotle supported to be taught to children? Discuss its features | Introduction to Philosophy | Course code 8609 | B.Ed Solved Assignment |

QUESTION 

What kind of curriculum does Aristotle support to be taught to children? Discuss its features.

Course: Introduction to Philosophy

Course code 8609

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment 

ANSWER  

The Curriculum of Child Education 

According to Aristotle, "What education is, and how children ought to be instructed, is what should be well-known; for there are doubts concerning the business of it, as all people  do not agree in those things they would have a child taught, both concerning their improvement in virtue and a happy life: nor is it clear whether the object of it should be to improve the reason or rectify the morals."

From the present mode of education continues Aristotle "We cannot determine with certainty to which men incline, whether to instruct a child in what will be useful to him in life; or what tends to virtue, and what is excellent: for all these things have their separate defenders." As to virtue, there is no particular in which they all agree: for as all do not equally esteem all virtues, it reasonably follows that they will not cultivate the same. What is necessary ought to be taught to all: but that which is necessary for one is not necessary for all; for there ought to be a distinction between the employment of a freeman and a slave. The first of these should be taught everything useful which will not make those who know it mean.

 According to Aristotle, "Every work  is to be esteemed mean, and every art and every discipline which renders the body, the mind, or the understanding of freemen unfit for the habit and practice of virtue: for which reason all those arts which tend to deform the body are called mean, and all those employments which are exercised for gain; for they take off from the freedom of the mind and render it sordid."

Some liberal arts are not improper for freemen to apply to a certain degree, but to endeavor to acquire a perfect skill in them is exposed to faults. Aristotle points out that there are four things that it is usual to teach children; reading, gymnastic exercise, and music, to which (in the fourth place) some add painting. Reading and painting are both of them of singular use in life, and gymnastic exercise is productive of courage. As to music, some people may doubt it, as most people now use it for the sake of pleasure: but those who originally made it part of education did it because nature requires that we should not only be properly employed but be able to enjoy leisure honorably.

According to Aristotle "But, though both labor and rest are necessary, yet the latter is preferable to the first; and by all means, man ought to learn what he should do when at rest: for he ought not to employ that time at play; for then play would be the necessary business of his lives. Play is more necessary for those who labor than those who are at rest: for he who labors requires relaxation; which play will supply: for as labor is attended with pain and continued exertion, that play must be introduced, under proper regulations, as a medicine: for such an employment of the mind is a relaxation to it, and eases with pleasure. Now rest itself seems to partake of pleasure, of happiness, and an agreeable life: but this cannot be theirs who labor, but theirs who are at rest; for he who labors, labors for the sake of some end which he has not.

 According to Aristotle, "Happiness is an end which all persons think is attended with pleasure and not with pain: but all persons do not agree in making this pleasure consist in the same thing; for each one has his particular standard, correspondent to his own habits; but the best man proposes the best pleasure and that which arises from the noblest actions." To live a life of rest there are some things which a man must learn and be instructed in. The object of this learning and this instruction centers on their acquisition.

The learning and instruction which is given for labor have for its object other things. The ancients made music a part of education; not as a thing necessary, for it is neither of that nature, nor as a thing useful, as reading, in the common course of life, or for managing a family, or for learning anything as useful in public life. The painting also seems useful to enable a man to judge more accurately the productions of the finer arts: nor is it like the gymnastic exercise, which contributes to health and strength; for neither of these things do we see produced by music. The employment of our rest, they had in view who introduced it. It is a proper employment for freemen.

It is evident, then, that there is a certain education in which a child may be instructed, not as useful nor as necessary, but as noble and liberal. We have the testimony of the ancients in our favor, by what they have delivered down upon education—for music makes this plain. Moreover, it is necessary to instruct children in what is useful, not only on account of its being useful in itself, as, for instance, to learn to read but also as the means of acquiring other different sorts of instruction. Thus they should be instructed in painting, not only to prevent their being mistake in purchasing pictures, or in buying or selling vases, but rather as it makes them judges of the beauty of the human form. According to Aristotle, "To be always hunting after the profitable ill agrees with great and freedom souls." Whether a boy should be first taught morals or reasoning, and whether his body or his understanding should be first cultivated, it is plain that boys should be first put under the care of the different masters of the gymnastic arts, both to form their bodies and teach them their exercises.

Physical Education

Aristotle criticizes those states that took the greatest care of their children's education by bestowing their chief attention on wrestling because it both prevents the growth of the body and hurts its form of it. The Lacedaemonians made their children fierce by painful labor, as chiefly useful to inspire them with courage: though, this is neither the only thing nor the principle thing necessary to attend to; and even for this they may not thus attain their end.

 Aristotle points out that "we do not find either in other animals, or other nations, that courage necessarily attends the cruelest, but rather the milder, and those who have the dispositions of lions: for there are many people who are eager both kill men and to devour human flesh, as the Achaeans and Heniochi in Pontus, and many others in Asia, some of whom are as bad, others worse than these who indeed live by tyranny, but are men of no courage." The Lacedaemonians did not acquire their superiority by training their youth to this exercise, but because those who were disciplined opposed those who were not disciplined at all. What is fair and honorable ought then to take place in the education of what is fierce and cruel: for it is not a wolf, nor any other wild beast, which will brave any noble danger, but rather a good man.

According to Aristotle, "Those who permit boys to engage too earnestly in this exercise, while they do not take care to instruct them in what is necessary to do, to speak the real truth, render them mean and vile, accomplished only in one duty of a citizen, and in every other respect, as reason evinces, good for nothing. Gymnastic exercise is useful during youth. It is very proper to go through a course of those which are most gentle, omitting violent diet and painful exercise as they may prevent the growth of the body. In support of his argument, Aristotle points out that amongst the Olympic candidates, one can scarcely find two or three who have gained a victory both boys and men: because the necessary exercise they went through when young deprived them of their strength. When they have been allotted three years from the time of puberty to other parts of education, they are then of a proper age to submit to labor and a regulated diet. According to Aristotle, "It is impossible for the mind and body both to labor at the same time, as they are productive of contrary evils to each other; the labor of the body preventing the progress of the mind, and the mind of the body".

Education in Music

About the purpose of education in music Aristotle points out, "It is no easy matter to distinctly point out what power it has, nor on what accounts one should apply it, whether as amusement and refreshment, as sleep or wine; as these are nothing serious, but pleasing, and the killers of care, as  Euripides says; for which reason they class in the same order and use for the same purpose all these, namely, sleep, wine and music, to which some add dancing; or shall we rather suppose that music tends to be productive or virtue, having power, as the gymnastic exercises have, to form the body in a certain way, to influence the manners to accustom its professors to rejoice rightly? Or shall we say that it is of any service in the conduct of life and an assistant to prudence? For this also a third property which has been attributed to it."

The difference between Learning and Playing

According to Aristotle boys should be instructed in music as play because those who learn don't play, for to learn is rather troublesome." Neither is it proper to permit boys at their age to enjoy perfect leisure; for to cease to improve is by no means fit for what is yet imperfect: It may be thought that the earnest attention of boys in music is for the sake of that amusement they will enjoy when they come to be men and completely formed: but, if this is the case, why are they to learn it, and not follow the practice of the kings of the Medes and Persians, who enjoy the pleasure of music by hearing others play, and being shown its beauties by them; for of necessity those must be better skilled therein who make this science their particular study and business, than those who have only spent so much time at it as was sufficient just to learn the principles of it. But if this is a reason for a child's being taught music they ought also to learn the art of cookery, which is absurd. The same doubt occurs if music has the power to improve manners; for why should they on this account themselves learn it, and not reap every advantage of regulating the passions or forming a judgment on the merits of the performance by hearing others. The same reasoning may be applied if music is supposed to be the amusement of those who live an elegant and easy life, why should they learn themselves, and not rather enjoy the benefit of others' skills.

Music for Harmony

According to Aristotle, the first question is, whether music is or is not to make a part of education? And of those three things which have been assigned as its proper employment, which is the right? Is it to instruct, to amuse, or to employ the vacant hours of those who live at rest? Or may not all three be properly allotted to it? For it appears to partake of them all; for play is necessary for relaxation, and relaxation pleasant, as it is a medicine for that uneasiness which arises from labor. It is admitted also that a happy life must be an honorable one, and a pleasant one too since happiness consists of both these; and music is one of the most pleasing things, whether alone or accompanied by a voice: for which reason it is justly admitted into every company and every happy life, as having the power of inspiring joy.

From this one may suppose that it is necessary to instruct young persons in music; for all those pleasures which are harmless are not only conducive to the final end of life, but serve also as relaxations; and, as men are but rarely in the attainment of that final end, they often cease from their labor and apply to amusement, with no further view than to acquire the pleasure attending it. It is therefore useful to enjoy such pleasures as these. Some persons make play and amusement their end, and probably that end has some pleasure annexed to it, but while men seek the one they accept the other for it; because there is some likeness in human actions to the end; for the end is pursued the sake of nothing else that attends it; but for itself only; and pleasures like these are sought for, not on account of what follows them, but on account of what has gone before them, as labor and grief; for which reason they seek for happiness in these sort of pleasures; and that this is the reason anyone may easily perceive.

That music should be pursued, not on this account only, but also as it is very serviceable during the hours of relaxation from labor, probably no one doubt. Music naturally gives pleasure; therefore the use of it is agreeable to all ages and all dispositions. It fills the soul with enthusiasm; which is an affection of the soul and strongly agitates the disposition. Music is one of those things that are pleasant. In poetry and music, there are imitations of manners: Different harmonies differ from each other so much by nature, that those who hear them are differently affected, and are not in the same disposition of mind when one is performed as when another is; the one, for instance, occasions grief and contracts the soul, others soften the mind, and as it dissolved the heart: others fix it in a firm and settled state, while the others fill the soul with enthusiasm, as has been well described by those who have written philosophically upon this part of education; for they bring examples of what they advance from the things themselves. The same holds true for rhythm; some fix the disposition, others occasion a change in it; some act more violently, others more liberally. Thus, it is evident that music has an influence over the disposition of the mind, and it can fascinate it variously and if it can do this, most certainly it is what youth ought to be instructed in. 

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Discuss the authoritative knowledge is not objective and logical | Introduction to Philosophy | Course code 8609 | B.Ed Solved Assignment |

QUESTION 

Discuss that authoritative knowledge is not objective and logical.

Course: Introduction to Philosophy

Course code 8609

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment 

ANSWER  

The statement that authoritative knowledge is not objective and logical can be approached from various perspectives. Let's explore this topic in more detail.

Authority and Objectivity:

Authority refers to the power or right to give commands, enforce obedience, or make decisions. In the context of knowledge, authority often comes from experts, scholars, or institutions that possess expertise in a particular field. While authoritative knowledge is often considered reliable and trustworthy, it does not guarantee objectivity. Objectivity implies the absence of bias, prejudice, or personal opinions in the information presented.

The subjectivity of authoritative knowledge can arise due to several factors. First, experts themselves may hold personal biases, influenced by their cultural, social, or ideological backgrounds. These biases can impact the information they produce or endorse. Second, the process of establishing authority itself may be influenced by societal power dynamics, politics, or economic interests, leading to the promotion of certain perspectives over others. As a result, authoritative knowledge can reflect the dominant narrative or vested interests, rather than absolute objectivity.

Authority and Logic:

Logic refers to systematic and coherent reasoning based on valid principles and rules. While authoritative knowledge is expected to be logical, it is not immune to logical fallacies or errors in reasoning. Experts, like anyone else, can make mistakes, overlook certain aspects, or engage in flawed arguments. Authority does not guarantee flawless logic.

Additionally, the field of study itself may have limitations or uncertainties that impact the logical foundation of authoritative knowledge. Some areas of knowledge, such as philosophy or social sciences, often deal with complex and nuanced subjects that may not have universally agreed-upon logical frameworks. Different schools of thought or interpretations within a field can lead to divergent conclusions.

Moreover, the evolving nature of knowledge can challenge the logical consistency of authoritative information. As new evidence, research, or paradigms emerge, previously accepted knowledge may need revision or be rendered incomplete. This dynamic nature can make it challenging to maintain a strictly logical framework across different points in time.

Interpretation and Perspective:

Authoritative knowledge can be influenced by the interpretations and perspectives of those in positions of authority. The process of interpreting and conveying knowledge involves subjective elements. Experts may have different interpretations of the same data or evidence, leading to varying conclusions. These interpretations can be influenced by personal beliefs, cultural contexts, or theoretical frameworks.

Furthermore, authoritative knowledge often represents a consensus within a particular field or community of experts. Consensus, however, does not necessarily equate to objectivity. It may reflect the dominant perspectives or prevailing theories at a given time, which can change as new information emerges or paradigms shift. Disagreements and debates within the scientific or scholarly community illustrate the subjective nature of interpreting and establishing authoritative knowledge.

Sociocultural Influences:

Sociocultural factors can impact the production and dissemination of authoritative knowledge. The dominant cultural, social, or political context can shape the values, biases, and priorities of authoritative sources. Historical biases, systemic discrimination, or power imbalances can influence the knowledge that is considered authoritative, often reflecting the perspectives and interests of the dominant groups.

For example, in the past, scientific theories were influenced by prevailing societal beliefs and biases. Authorities have supported ideas that were later discredited, such as the notion of scientific racism or gender-based discrimination. These examples highlight the subjective nature of authoritative knowledge and the influence of societal factors on its objectivity.

Paradigm Shifts and Uncertainties:

The nature of knowledge is not static, but rather subject to revisions and paradigm shifts over time. New evidence, scientific discoveries, or changes in societal perspectives can challenge existing authoritative knowledge. This dynamic process introduces uncertainties and the need for constant reassessment.

While authorities strive for logical consistency, the evolving nature of knowledge can disrupt established logical frameworks. In some cases, logical reasoning may be based on incomplete information or flawed assumptions that are later corrected or refined. The presence of uncertainties and the potential for paradigm shifts demonstrate the limitations of assuming authoritative knowledge is always objectively and logically grounded.

In conclusion, authoritative knowledge is not immune to subjectivity or logical limitations. Interpretations, perspectives, sociocultural influences, and the evolving nature of knowledge can all impact its objectivity and logical consistency. Acknowledging these factors can encourage critical thinking and open dialogue, promoting a more nuanced understanding of knowledge and its inherent complexities.

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Discuss Platos' Idea of education

The Educational views of Ahmed Ibn-e-Muhammad Ibn-e-Ya'qub Ibn-e-Miskawayh

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Discuss that authoritative knowledge is not objective and logical

Comparison of the teaching Practices Demanded by Pragmatism and Naturalism

Different Educational Philosophies. Which one is the dominant?

What is the role of the teacher in the philosophy of idealism? Which teaching method is used by an idealistic teacher?

Ways in which philosophy provide guidelines for the education.

The Role of Contemporary Philosophies in Education?

Describe the Different Sources of Knowledge

Discuss the main Tenets of Idealism and Realism

The Role of Branches of Philosophy in System of Education (i. Epistemology, ii. Axiology)

Relationship of Education and Philosophy 

Discuss the Branches of Philosophy

Compare the Teaching Practices demanded by Pragmatism and Naturalism | Introduction to Philosophy | Course code 8609 | B.Ed Solved Assignment |

QUESTION

Compare the teaching practices demanded by pragmatism and naturalism.

Course: Introduction to Philosophy

Course code 8609

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment 

ANSWER  

Pragmatism and naturalism are two philosophical approaches that have influenced educational theory and practice. While both emphasize the importance of experience and the learner's interaction with the environment, they differ in their perspectives on the role of knowledge and the methods of teaching. In this comparison, we will explore the teaching practices demanded by pragmatism and naturalism. 

Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the practical consequences of ideas and the importance of experience in shaping knowledge. It views knowledge as a tool to solve real-life problems and values the learner's active participation in the learning process. Pragmatism emphasizes the application of knowledge to real-world situations, fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. 

In terms of teaching practices, pragmatism demands a student-centered approach. Teachers play the role of facilitators, guiding students through inquiry-based learning experiences. They encourage students to explore their interests, ask questions, and engage in hands-on activities. The emphasis is on practical and experiential learning, where students are encouraged to apply concepts and theories to real-life situations.

Pragmatism also promotes collaborative learning. Students are encouraged to work together in groups, engaging in discussions, debates, and projects. This promotes the development of social skills, teamwork, and cooperation. The teacher's role is to facilitate and mediate these interactions, encouraging students to learn from each other's experiences and perspectives. 

Assessment in pragmatism focuses on the practical application of knowledge rather than rote memorization. Teachers evaluate students' ability to solve problems, think critically, and apply concepts to real-life scenarios. Assessments may include projects, presentations, and demonstrations that showcase the student's understanding and ability to apply knowledge in practical contexts.

 On the other hand, naturalism is a philosophical approach that views nature and the natural world as the ultimate source of knowledge. It emphasizes the importance of studying and understanding natural phenomena through direct observation and experimentation. Naturalism believes that knowledge can be discovered through empirical evidence and scientific inquiry. 

In terms of teaching practices, naturalism demands a hands-on and experiential approach. Teachers facilitate learning by providing opportunities for students to engage directly with the natural world. This may involve field trips, outdoor activities, and experiments that allow students to observe and interact with nature. Naturalism values the integration of nature into the curriculum, connecting subjects such as science, geography, and ecology. 

Naturalism also emphasizes the use of sensory experiences in learning. Teachers encourage students to use their senses to observe and explore the natural environment. This promotes a deeper understanding and appreciation of the natural world. Students may be encouraged to keep journals, make sketches, or collect samples as part of their learning process. 

Assessment in naturalism focuses on the student's ability to observe, analyze, and draw conclusions from natural phenomena. Teachers may assess students' understanding through observations, experiments, and written reflections. Assessment criteria often include the student's ability to apply scientific methods, make accurate observations, and interpret data. 

While both pragmatism and naturalism emphasize experiential learning, they differ in their views on the source of knowledge. Pragmatism values the practical consequences of ideas and emphasizes problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and collaboration. Naturalism, on the other hand, places a strong emphasis on the study of the natural world and the use of empirical evidence.

In conclusion, pragmatism and naturalism have distinct teaching practices demanded by their philosophical perspectives. Pragmatism promotes student-centered learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, with an emphasis on practical application. Naturalism emphasizes hands-on experiences, direct observation of nature, and scientific inquiry. Both approaches value the learner's active engagement with the environment, but they differ in their underlying views on the nature of knowledge. By understanding these differences, educators can draw from both pragmatism and nature.

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Imam Ghazali's Philosophy of Education

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Curriculum Supported by Aristotle to be taught to Children

Discuss Platos' Idea of education

The Educational views of Ahmed Ibn-e-Muhammad Ibn-e-Ya'qub Ibn-e-Miskawayh

Educational Inmplications of John Dewy's 

Discuss that authoritative knowledge is not objective and logical

Comparison of the teaching Practices Demanded by Pragmatism and Naturalism

Different Educational Philosophies. Which one is the dominant?

What is the role of the teacher in the philosophy of idealism? Which teaching method is used by an idealistic teacher?

Ways in which philosophy provide guidelines for the education.

The Role of Contemporary Philosophies in Education?

Describe the Different Sources of Knowledge

Discuss the main Tenets of Idealism and Realism

The Role of Branches of Philosophy in System of Education (i. Epistemology, ii. Axiology)

Relationship of Education and Philosophy

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Define Different Educational Philosophies | Which Philosophy is Dominant in our present Curriculum | Introduction to Philosophy | Course code 8609 | B.Ed Solved Assignment |

QUESTION

Define different educational philosophies. Which philosophy is dominant in our present curriculum?

Course: Introduction to Philosophy

Course code 8609

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment 

ANSWER 

Educational philosophies are fundamental beliefs and principles that guide the practices, goals, and content of education. These philosophies shape how educators view the purpose of education, the nature of knowledge, the role of the teacher and student, and the methods of instruction. While numerous educational philosophies exist, I will provide an overview of five major ones: essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, constructivism, and social reconstructionism.

Essentialism:

Essentialism is an educational philosophy that emphasizes the core knowledge and skills necessary for students to become productive members of society. It focuses on transmitting traditional academic subjects, such as reading, writing, mathematics, and science. Essentialists believe in a structured curriculum with a strong emphasis on discipline, order, and authority. They view the role of the teacher as an authority figure who imparts knowledge and directs students' learning.

Progressivism:

Progressivism is an educational philosophy that emphasizes the interests, needs, and experiences of students. It focuses on active learning, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills. Progressivists believe that education should be relevant to the real world and that students learn best through hands-on experiences and collaboration. Teachers serve as facilitators, guiding students' inquiries and encouraging exploration.

Perennial:

Perennialism is an educational philosophy that emphasizes the enduring principles and ideas found in the great works of literature, philosophy, and science. It focuses on teaching universal truths and concepts that are timeless and essential to human understanding. Perennialists believe that education should cultivate intellectual and moral development and promote a deep understanding of human nature. The role of the teacher is to transmit knowledge and engage students in discussions of important ideas.

Constructivism:

Constructivism is an educational philosophy that posits that learners actively construct knowledge through their experiences and interactions with the world. It emphasizes hands-on activities, problem-solving, and student-centered learning. Constructivists believe that learners should build their understanding by connecting new information to their existing knowledge and experiences. Teachers serve as guides, providing scaffolding and facilitating meaningful learning experiences.

Social Reconstructionism:

Social Reconstructionism is an educational philosophy that emphasizes the need for education to address social inequalities and promote social justice. It focuses on the role of education in transforming society and promoting positive social change. Social reconstructionists believe that education should empower students to critically analyze and challenge existing social, economic, and political structures. Teachers serve as advocates and facilitators of social awareness and activism.

As for the dominant educational philosophy in the present curriculum, it can vary across different regions and educational systems. However, it is important to note that many educational approaches incorporate elements from multiple philosophies, creating a blended or eclectic approach. In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on student-centered learning, active engagement, and critical thinking, which aligns with progressivism and constructivism. These philosophies prioritize student agency, problem-solving, and real-world applications. However, it is essential to consider that the dominant philosophy may differ depending on the educational level (e.g., primary, secondary, higher education) and cultural context.

It's worth mentioning that educational philosophies can evolve over time in response to societal changes and educational research. Different philosophies may gain or lose dominance as educators explore innovative approaches and adapt to new educational paradigms. Ultimately, the most effective curriculum and instructional practices should be based on a thoughtful integration of multiple philosophies, considering the diverse needs and goals of learners in the 21st century.

Related Topics

Concept of John Dewy's Philosophy of Education

Imam Ghazali's Philosophy of Education

Friedrich Froebel's Views Regarding Philosophy of Education

Curriculum Supported by Aristotle to be taught to Children

Discuss Platos' Idea of education

The Educational views of Ahmed Ibn-e-Muhammad Ibn-e-Ya'qub Ibn-e-Miskawayh

Educational Inmplications of John Dewy's 

Discuss that authoritative knowledge is not objective and logical

Comparison of the teaching Practices Demanded by Pragmatism and Naturalism

Different Educational Philosophies. Which one is the dominant?

What is the role of the teacher in the philosophy of idealism? Which teaching method is used by an idealistic teacher?

Ways in which philosophy provide guidelines for the education.

The Role of Contemporary Philosophies in Education?

Describe the Different Sources of Knowledge

Discuss the main Tenets of Idealism and Realism

The Role of Branches of Philosophy in System of Education (i. Epistemology, ii. Axiology)

Relationship of Education and Philosophy

Discuss the Branches of Philosophy