Aims and Objectives of Teacher Education as given by Aggerwal | National Education Policy 2009 |Teacher Education in Pakistan | Course code 8626 |AIOU | B.Ed Solved Assignment

QUESTION 

Compare the aims and objectives of teacher education as given by Aggerwal and given in the National Education Policy 2009.

Course: Teacher Education in Pakistan

Course code 8626
Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)
Solved Assignment

Answer:

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2009 (“the Policy”) is the latest in a series of education policies dating back to the very inception of the country in 1947. The review process for the National Education Policy 1998-2010 was initiated in 2005 and the first public document, the White Paper, was finalized in March 2007. The White Paper, as designed, became the basis for the development of the Policy document. Though four years have elapsed between the beginning and finalization of the exercise, the lag is due to a number of factors including the process of consultations adopted and significant political changes that took place in the country.

Two main reasons prompted the Ministry of Education (MoE) to launch the review in 2005 well before the time horizon of the existing Policy (1998 - 2010)1: firstly, the Policy did not produce the desired educational results and performance remained deficient in several critical aspects including access, quality, and equity of educational opportunities and, secondly, Pakistan’s new international commitments to Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Dakar Framework of Action for Education for All (EFA). Also, the challenges triggered by globalization and the nation’s quest for becoming a knowledge society in the wake of compelling domestic pressures like devolution and demographic transformations have necessitated a renewed commitment to proliferate quality education for all.

This document is organized into nine chapters. Chapter 1 describes overarching challenges, identifies two fundamental causes that lie behind the deficiencies in performance (the commitment gap and the implementation gap), and outlines the way forward.

Chapters 2 and 3 articulate the ways of filling the Commitment Gap (system values, priorities, and resources) and Implementation Gap (Ensuring good governance) respectively. Chapter 4 puts forward the provisions of Islamic Education and the transformation of the society on Islamic human values. Chapters 5 to 8 outline reforms and policy actions to be taken at the sub-sector levels. Chapter 9 broadly suggests a Framework for Implementation of the Action Plan of this Policy document. Annex- I describe the current state of the education sector. 

Available indicators have been assessed against data in comparable countries Most of the issues recognized in this document were also discussed in previous policy documents. A new policy document on its own will not ameliorate the condition but all segments of society will have to contribute to this endeavor. However, the record does recognize two deficits of previous documents i.e. governance reform and an implementation roadmap, which if redressed, can improve the performance of the present Policy.

The policy discusses issues of inter-tier responsibilities wherein the respective roles and functions of the federal-provincial-district governments continue to be unclear. Confusion has been compounded, especially, at the provincial-district levels after the ‘Devolution Plan’ mainly because the latter was not supported by a clear articulation of strategies. The other issue identified for governance reforms is the fragmentation of ministries, institutions, etc.

for management of various sub-sectors of education and, at times, within each sub-sector. Problems of management and planning have also been discussed and recommendations prepared. This document includes a chapter that describes the implementation framework. The framework recognizes the centrality of the federating units in the implementation of education policy measures. The role of the Federal Ministry of Education will be that of a coordinator and facilitator so as to ensure sectorial and geographic uniformity in the achievement of educational goals nationally.

Encouraging private investment in education. There shall be regulatory bodies at the national and provincial levels to regulate activities and smooth functioning of privately- managed schools and institutions of higher education through proper rules and regulations.

A reasonable tax rebate shall be granted on the expenditure incurred on the setting up of educational facilities by the private sector. Matching grants shall be provided for establishing educational institutions by the private sector in rural areas or poor urban areas through Education Foundations. Existing institutions of higher learning shall be allowed to negotiate for financial assistance with donor agencies in collaboration with the Ministry of Education.

 Educational institutions to be set up in the private sector shall be provided (a) plots in residential schemes on reserve prices, and (b) rebates on income tax, like industry. Schools running on a non-profit basis shall be exempted from all taxes. Curricula of private institutions must conform to the principles laid down in the Federal Supervision of curricula, Textbooks, and Maintenance of Standards of Education Act, 1976. The fee structure of privately managed educational institutions shall be developed in consultation with the government.

Innovative Programs

The National Education Testing Service will be established to design and administer standardized tests for admission to professional institutions. Qualifying these tests will become a compulsory requirement for entry to professional education. This mechanism is expected to check the incidence of malpractice in examinations. Likewise, standardized tests shall be introduced for admission to general education in universities.

Implementation Monitoring and Evaluation

A comprehensive monitoring and evaluation system has been envisaged from grass-roots to the highest level. The District Education Authority will be established in each district to ensure public participation in monitoring and implementation. The education Ministers at the Federal and Provincial levels will oversee monitoring committees, responsible for implementation at their levels. The Prime Minister and Provincial Chief Ministers will be the Chief of National and Provincial Education Councils respectively which will ensure the achievement of targets. Existing EMIS at the Federal and Provincial levels shall be strengthened to make them responsive to the need for a Monitoring and Evaluation System (MES). 

The Academy of Educational Planning and Management (AEPAM) shall be strengthened and tuned up to meet the emerging demands of MES and its obligations at the national and provincial levels. Data collected through Provincial EMISs and collated by AEPAM through National Education Management Information System (NEMIS) shall be recognized as one source for planning, management, monitoring, and evaluation purposes to avoid disparities and confusion. Databases of critical indicators on qualitative aspects of educational growth shall be developed and maintained by AEPAM for developing sustainable indicators of progress, based on more reliable and valid data to facilitate planning, implementation and follow-up. A School Census Day shall be fixed for collecting data from all over the country.

Quality and Access in Higher Education.| Life long Learning |

 QUESTION:

Write a comprehensive note on the following

Course: Higher Education
Course code 8625
Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER

a) Quality and Access in higher education.

Assessment is a systemic process in higher education that uses empirical data on student learning to refine programs and improve student learning.[1] As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning.

Quality in education

Access to education is important, but just as important is actually learning basic knowledge and skills in the classroom. Many children across the world cannot read, despite having attended school for several years. High-quality education is a prerequisite for learning and human development.

Quality is affected by factors both inside and outside the classroom – everything from the availability of a teacher and teaching aids to the child’s starting point when it comes to mother tongue language or general health, for example. Overall, securing high-quality education is a considerable challenge, particularly for countries with limited resources, where educational systems are prevented from functioning normally.

Assessment in higher education can focus on the individual learner, a course, an academic program, or the institution.
1. Course-level Assessment
2. Program-level Assessment

Course-level Assessment

Assessment embedded at the course level (sometimes referred to as embedded assessment or authentic assessment) typically involves the use of assignments.[3] Students receive feedback on their performance on assignments and faculty gain knowledge of student learning to use for grading.[4] The work assessed within courses best relates to specific program-level student learning outcomes. Angelo and Cross[5] believe assessment in the classroom is an important part of the faculty feedback loop which can provide meaningful information about their effectiveness as teachers while also giving students a measure of their progress as learners.

Student Perception of Feedback[ Studies show feedback is valued by students.[6] Feedback that is timely, specific, and delivered individually helps to reinforce this perception.[7] This type of feedback, usually referred to as Just In Time, helps to create a feedback loop between student and teacher. Students generally find more utility in formative feedback when they are also presented with strategies on how to use the feedback.[8] These strategies help with perception because they tackle a lack of understanding of academic discourse which hinders students' ability to use the feedback effectively.[6]

Quality of Feedback on Assessment

Timing is crucial in the delivery of feedback to students.[9] Kift and Moody claim that the complexity of the assignment should dictate how soon feedback should provided. For simpler tasks, feedback should be provided within 24 hours. However, if the task is more complicated, giving students time for reflection before providing feedback is more beneficial. "Effective feedback should be task-related and focus on student performance rather than personal attributes of the student." [10] Studies have shown that the way feedback is delivered can have either positive or negative effects on the student.[11] Corrective feedback helps to move student learning forward and improves future assessments.

b). Life long Learning

Lifelong learning is the broad term for education that is conducted beyond school. Therefore it’s voluntary, rather than compulsory, and is completely self-motivated – with the main goal being to improve personal or professional development. here are many different ways to carry on your education – whether it’s by taking a course, or continuing your personal development in a less formal setting. And it doesn’t necessarily have to come at a cost.

To help you see which options are open to you, here’s everything you need to know about lifelong learning:
some examples of lifelong learning?
Because it’s such a broad term, there are many different ways you could continue adding to your knowledge.

Some examples of lifelong learning include:
· Internships and apprenticeships
· Vocational courses
· Teaching yourself a new language
· Studying a new subject
· Learning to use new pieces of technology
· Playing a new game or sport
· Adding to your skillset during employment
· Gaining knowledge and learned behaviors from your environment

However, this is by no means an extensive list – and any attempts to actively build your skills will generally fall under the category of lifelong learning.
What are the benefits of lifelong learning?

There are several advantages to this form of studying. Including:
· To gain a new qualification
· To add to your transferable skills
· To increase your employability and promotion prospects
· To earn more money
· To fill a skills gap
· To broaden your knowledge
· To better contribute to the community
· Mental stimulation
· Personal and professional satisfaction
· sing that formal qualifications aren’t the only way to identify desirable staff.
· The knowledge gained through previous experience, as well as any skills that have been self-taught or learned along the way, could greatly benefit the business.

Lifelong learning also ensures their employees continue to develop and show their desire to grow on a professional level. If you’re considering continuing your education but you’re not sure where to start, here are some of our top tips:

Utilise technology – Whatever subject you’re interested in, there is a wealth of online resources out there to help you learn. Listen to podcasts, download eBooks, take a distance learning course, or join forums to continue your development.

Ask your employer – If you’re already at work, ask your employer to help you with personal development planning. Chances are they already offer a lot of training internally, and may even subsidize the cost of a new certification if it helps add value to the business.

Stay motivated – Because this form of learning is completely voluntary, it will often require self-motivation and dedication to stay focused. Offer yourself incentives to keep going, or ask a friend or family member to help you stay on track.

Add some structure – Try setting aside the same amount of time for studying each night, or each week, make sure you stick to it, and try and write down a goal for each session. Take your learning seriously, and you’re far more likely to stick to it.

Take every opportunity – It isn’t just a new certification you can gain from lifelong learning. There are plenty of opportunities out there to add to your knowledge, from taking a class in the local community center to joining reading groups or even watching webinars.

Related Topics 

 Quality and Access in Higher Education and Life long Learning 

The Future of Higher Education and the Role of Technology in Distance Education

Scope and Significance of Assessment in Higher Education and Used Different Kinds of Assessment  Techniques 

Concept and Nature of Financing in Education

Comparison Between German and Pakistan Higher Education

Need and Scope of Research in Higher Education 

 National Education Policy 2009

Different Organizations in the Development of Higher Education in Pakistan

Status of Higher Education in Pakistan and Planning of Higher Education in Pakistan

Higher Education in Socio-Economic Development and Importance of Education in Economic Development 

The Future of Higher Education | Role Technology in Distance Education

QUESTION:

Highlight the future trends in higher education and the role of technology in distance mode of learning. 

Course: Higher Education
Course code 8625
Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER

The Future of Higher Education:

The most important challenge involves a shift in the way students consume higher education. Instead of attending a single institution, students receive credit in multiple ways, including from early-college/dual-degree programs, community colleges, online providers, and various universities. Students are voting with their feet, embracing online courses, and undermining core curricula, which served as a cash cow, by turning to alternate providers and pursuing fewer majors that require the study of a foreign language.

As a result, colleges must become more nimble, entrepreneurial, student-focused, and accountable for what students learn. I am a historian and far better at interpreting the past than forecasting the future.” This report goes on to predict 15 innovations that will alter the face of higher education.

The future of higher education depends on innovation.

We have put together 4 articles consisting of educated predictions, research, and reports that can provide an indication of what the future holds for universities and business schools:

“The most important challenge involves a shift in the way students consume higher education. Instead of attending a single institution, students receive credit in multiple ways, including from early-college/dual-degree programs, community colleges, online providers, and numerous universities. Students are voting with their feet, embracing online courses, and undermining core curricula, which served as a cash cow, by turning to alternate providers and pursuing fewer majors that require the study of a foreign language.

As a result, colleges must become more nimble, entrepreneurial, student-focused, and accountable for what students learn. I am a historian and far better at interpreting the past than forecasting the future.” This report goes on to predict 15 innovations that will alter the face of higher education.

Full Story: The Chronicle

Everything from the emergence of MOOCs to new learning styles and mounting financial and sustainability pressures is impacting the education landscape. Higher education leaders are developing new strategies to leverage these challenges and opportunities every day.

The common denominator amidst all this change: is students. To best recruit and retain students, universities need to evaluate how they offer a student life experience that prepares students to be healthy and dynamic people in the future. That means universities need to embrace sustainability and wellness as key components of campus life. Spelman College recently differentiated itself by diverting all of its athletic funding to create a “Wellness Revolution,” focused on best promoting the health of its students. e expect that in the coming years, long-standing models of higher education that prefer tradition and stability will be supplemented, if not displaced, by new models that embrace organizational innovation, responsivity, and adaptation.

A dual transformation design strategy has proved especially effective for addressing both legacy and emerging markets. According to this approach, operations act in parallel—one to develop strategies that optimize the core organization to become more responsive to the new profile of demands it faces, and the second to design and implement disruptive innovations that provide a basis for future growth, agility, and responsivity.1 We provide here a set of recommendations for how dual transformation can be implemented in higher education. virtual reality, robotic telepresence, and cyber defense will be driving forces in digital- learning at colleges and universities over the next 20 years.

Role Technology in Distance Education

The concept of ‘Distance Education‘ is not new and can be traced as far back as the first century. The Apostle Paul wrote to the early Christian Churches, teaching them from a distance even from his prison cell. However, organizational use of distance learning methods was first introduced in the 19th century. One of the first universities to deliver distance learning in an organized manner was Pennsylvania State University which established its first distance learning network in 1886.

Today, distance education calls upon an impressive, range of technologies to enable teachers and students who are separated by distance, to communicate with each other either in real-time (synchronous) or delayed time (asynchronous). Due to modern communication and technologies, today's educational transactions through distance mode are being utilized by students and teachers engaged in both formal and open systems of education. Rai (2000) has defined three types of distance education systems, viz., Institute-centered, Person-centered, and Society-based.

(i). Institute–Centered Distance Education System:

In this system, there is a predominance of systematic models of education. The institutional mission focuses on the cost-effectiveness and cost-efficiency of the system. Academics become consultants to the institution for material design and development. All other functionaries in the institution are assigned essential functions with accountability and individual responsibility.

(ii). Person – PersonCentered distance Education system:

Under this system of distance education, the programmers are more individualized and negotiable as the aim is to serve the individual learner. Individualized learning is personally negotiated and is followed up by tutors/counselors. 

(iii). Society-Based Distance Education System:

In the society-based distance education system learning, materials are developed by the needs of the community. These are used in community situations where the teacher strives to involve the entire community In the study of the learning materials. The teacher functions as a facilitator to identify learning goals, evaluate learning materials, etc.

Before discussing the various media and technologies of distance education, appropriate to deliberate upon its objectives in brief the distance education attempts:

§ to provide an opportunity for education to those who had discontinued their formal education due to one reason or another at any age and class. Working persons, economically and otherwise disabled persons, or persons residing in remote areas may improve and advance their academic careers through distance education;

§ To provide quality education and training to a large number of students at lower costs than the conventional education system;

§ To make access to higher education;

§ to promote education as a lifelong activity by providing necessary access to the masses, particularly to the disadvantageous groups like those living in rural areas, the employed, women, weaker sections of society, and many others wishing to acquire and upgrade knowledge and skills, at their doorsteps;

§ to provide a flexible and diversified innovative education system that is open in the methods of learning, pace, place, and eligibility criterion as well as in every operation of the program;

§ to promote courses leading to gainful employment, tailored to specific vocational/professional needs, as also being relevant to local needs;

Media in distance education is a kind of delivery system, which includes all kinds of mechanical devices directed to educational use. These devices are used to communicate knowledge or ideas to a large number of people who are located in far-off rural and remote areas. The distance education program can be enriched and made more attractive, effective, and satisfying for learning by using a variety of media content. The facilities that can be provided for these programs should attempt to exploit the potential of the variety of powerful media rendered by modem technology.

Related Topics 

 Quality and Access in Higher Education and Life long Learning 

The Future of Higher Education and the Role of Technology in Distance Education

Scope and Significance of Assessment in Higher Education and Used Different Kinds of Assessment  Techniques 

Concept and Nature of Financing in Education

Comparison Between German and Pakistan Higher Education

Need and Scope of Research in Higher Education 

 National Education Policy 2009

Different Organizations in the Development of Higher Education in Pakistan

Status of Higher Education in Pakistan and Planning of Higher Education in Pakistan

Higher Education in Socio-Economic Development and Importance of Education in Economic Development 

Scope and Significance of Assessment in Higher Education | Used Different Kinds of Assessment Techniques

 QUESTION

Discuss the scope and significance of assessment in higher education. Identify different kinds of assessment techniques used by the university teacher.

Course: Higher Education
Course code 8625
Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER

Scope and significance of assessment in higher education.

I'm sure you know the feeling of anticipation when you are about to take a quiz or test. Did you take detailed class notes and study enough? And you surely have been assigned various essays. Did you give yourself enough time to research, write, and revise your essay to meet the requirements? Exams and essays along with speeches and projects are forms of assessment. Assessment is a critical step in the learning process. It determines whether or not the course's learning
objectives have been met. A learning objective is what students should know or be able to do by the time a lesson is completed. Assessment affects many facets of education, including student grades, placement, and advancement as well as curriculum, instructional needs, and school funding.

The Effects of Assessment

Let's look at a couple of the main effects of assessment:

Student Learning:

Assessment is a key component of learning because it helps students learn. When students can see how they are doing in a class, they can determine whether or not they understand the course material. Assessment can also help motivate students. If students know they are doing poorly, they may begin to work harder.

Imagine this situation:

Johnny is a chemistry student. He just took his first exam in his class. He earned 56%; he needs 79% to pass the class. The low exam score lets Johnny know that he missed something important he should have learned. Perhaps, he did not understand the material, or maybe he did not study long enough. Whatever the case, the assessment results let Johnny know that he did not successfully learn the material and that he must try something new to earn a better score.

Teaching:

Just as assessment helps students, assessment helps teachers. Frequent assessment allows teachers to see if their teaching has been effective. The assessment also allows teachers to ensure students learn what they need to know to meet the course's learning objectives.

Imagine this situation:

Pre-assessment or diagnostic assessment

Before creating the instruction, it’s necessary to know for what kind of students you’re creating the instruction. Your goal is to get to know your student’s strengths, weaknesses, and the skills and knowledge they possess before taking the instruction. Based on the data you’ve collected, you can create your own instruction. 

Formative assessment

Formative assessment is used in the first attempt at developing instruction. The goal is to monitor student learning to provide feedback. It helps identify the first gaps in your instruction. Based on this feedback you’ll know what to focus on for further expansion of your instruction.

Summative assessment

Summative assessment is aimed at assessing the extent to which the most important outcomes at the end of the instruction have been reached. But it measures more: the effectiveness of learning, reactions to the instruction, and the benefits on a long-term basis. The long-term benefits can be determined by following students who attend your course, or test. You can see whether and how they use the learned knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Read more about formative and summative assessments.

Confirmative assessment

When your instruction has been implemented in your classroom, it’s still necessary to take the assessment. Your goal with confirmative assessments is to find out if the instruction is still a success after a year, for example, and if the way you're teaching is still on point. You could say that a confirmative assessment is an extensive form of a summative assessment.

Norm-referenced assessment

This compares a student’s performance against an average norm. This could be the average national norm for the subject of History, for example. Another example is when the teacher compares the average grade of his or her students against the average grade of the entire school.

Criterion-referenced assessment

It measures students’ performances against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards. It checks what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. Criterion-referenced tests are used to evaluate a specific body of knowledge or skill set, it’s a test to evaluate the curriculum taught in a course.

Ipsative assessment

It measures the performance of a student against previous performances from that student. With this method, you’re trying to improve yourself by comparing previous results. You’re not comparing yourself to other students, which may be not so good for your self-confidence.

Related Topics 

 Quality and Access in Higher Education and Life long Learning 

The Future of Higher Education and the Role of Technology in Distance Education

Scope and Significance of Assessment in Higher Education and Used Different Kinds of Assessment  Techniques 

Concept and Nature of Financing in Education

Comparison Between German and Pakistan Higher Education

Need and Scope of Research in Higher Education 

 National Education Policy 2009

Different Organizations in the Development of Higher Education in Pakistan

Status of Higher Education in Pakistan and Planning of Higher Education in Pakistan

Higher Education in Socio-Economic Development and Importance of Education in Economic Development 

Concept and Nature of Financing in Education | How to Stage in Higher Education can be Minimized

QUESTION

Explain the concept and nature of financing in education. how to stage in higher education can be minimized.

Course: Higher Education
Course code 8625
Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER

Concept and nature of financing in education:

Financial literacy is important because it equips us with the knowledge and skills we need to manage money effectively. Without it, our financial decisions and the actions we take—or don’t take—lack an informed foundation to maximize their success. And this can have dire consequences.

· Nearly half of Americans don’t expect to have enough money to retire comfortably.
· Credit card debt has reached its highest point ever.
· Forty percent of Americans can’t afford a $400 emergency expense.

Given the above statistics, it might not be surprising that nearly two-thirds of Americans can’t pass a basic test of financial literacy. To explore the importance of financial literacy, we turned to personal finance experts working in colleges, high schools, and credit unions. Together, the populations they serve span a broad range of ages, incomes, and backgrounds. These educators witness first-hand the impact that financial literacy—or the lack of financial literacy—can have on a person’s life.

We posed the same question to each of them: “Why is financial literacy important?” Here’s what they had to say. For college students, financial literacy is important because the formula for college success today only has two factors: grades and money. Professors and instructors thoroughly educate students on academic requirements and grading policies. It’s often new financial responsibilities and realities that campuses are not adequately educating or preparing students for success.

Research has even shown that students are more likely to drop out of school because of “outside pressures” than poor grades. Student success is no longer constrained to classrooms or defined by academic performance alone. The future success of our students relies on providing opportunities for them to learn, develop, and strengthen core life skills they need today and more importantly tomorrow as successful graduates. Our team is proud to be creating a new paradigm within higher education by bringing the topic of money out of the
shadows. We have become national leaders in our field by confirming that personal financial education services are no longer an exception for today’s students—they are an expectation.”

DEVELOPMENT:

 

The following basic questions were formulated before the methodology development:
• What basic principles should be used as a basis for the methodology?
• Should the ranking be presented in the format of a traditional system of leagues or a system of comparison/correlation of the universities?
• What data should the ranking be based on?

Round University Ranking (RUR) is an international ranking of leading world universities published by the RUR Ranking Agency (Moscow, Russia). The ranking provides a comparison of 930 leading universities from 80 countries around the world for 8 years (2010-2017) according to 20 indicators distributed into 4 areas: teaching, research, international diversity, and financial sustainability. Such a wide coverage, both geographically and temporally, makes RUR ranking a unique tool for choosing universities for study and work, as well as comparing higher education institutions on a global scale. Round University Ranking (RUR) is based on the data provided by Clarivate Analytics (formerly the IP&Science business of Thomson Reuters).

 

RUR ranking is:
• a navigator in the world of higher education enabling applicants and their parents to choose the appropriate higher institution and the way of training;
• a tool for students to choose a higher education institution for their short-term programs or change their main place of study;
• a tool for teachers and professors enabling them to find suitable vacancies and make decisions about cooperation with their colleagues in other universities;
• an assessment tool for the management of universities evaluating the competitiveness of a university on the national and global scale and making the appropriate management decisions aimed at comprehensive improvement of the university’s international competitiveness;
• one of the assessment tools for business evaluating the university and making decisions about cooperation with a particular higher education institution;
• a tool for the state to comprehensively assess the country's higher education system as well as a way of maintaining national prestige.

Publication bias

Publication bias is an issue that can lead to biased results in a meta-analysis. Publication bias occurs when not all research has been published or reported. Studies may not be reported or published because of non-significant results, or because the results are not valued properly by journal editors or by other researchers. When these studies report different results from those in the analysis, bias arises.

The majority of the studies used in this review are journal articles (46.15%). Roughly half of the studies are located outside journals, and the possibility exists that we do not have to cope with publication bias. However, we also want to draw attention to two caveats. First of all, most articles in this review sample are in the field of education economics. A tradition in this field is that unpublished articles are often made available online because of the long time that elapses before publication. As a result, some of our “unpublished” papers may be published in the future. Secondly, it is not really clear what unpublished means in the digital area.

Indeed, most documents can be easily obtained via internet searches independently of being controlled by commercial publishers.

Related Topics 

 Quality and Access in Higher Education and Life long Learning 

The Future of Higher Education and the Role of Technology in Distance Education

Scope and Significance of Assessment in Higher Education and Used Different Kinds of Assessment  Techniques 

Concept and Nature of Financing in Education

Comparison Between German and Pakistan Higher Education

Need and Scope of Research in Higher Education 

 National Education Policy 2009

Different Organizations in the Development of Higher Education in Pakistan

Status of Higher Education in Pakistan and Planning of Higher Education in Pakistan

Higher Education in Socio-Economic Development and Importance of Education in Economic Development