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Monday, September 16, 2019

Curriculum offering during the period of Holy Prophet (PBUH)|


Q 2: Discuss the curriculum offered during the period of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Give study references while explaining your answer.

Course: General Methods of Teaching 

Course code 8601

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment


Answer:



Curriculum Offering during the period of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)


Prophet Mohammad P.B.U.H. adopted a distinctive approach to teach his followers and companions the basics and concepts of Islam, which comes from divine revelation; his teachings cover all aspects of life, work, living, and human dealings, which are suitable everywhere and anytime. The significance of this approach in individual learning motivates us to highlight those ways in a scientific methodology. In this paper, we have classified the ways and methods adopted by the Prophet Muhammad P.B.U.H in the education of Muslims generally and for his companions especially.
The prophet Mohammad P.B.U.H started a new religion by calling people to Islam and be ready to change their lives for the better, his style was based on individual differences and consisted of their situations, natures, habits, and mentalities(Sulayman, 2014). The prophet fully succeeded in his task of bringing the new nation of Islam to the world as Allah wants it to be by introducing new religious rituals, aspects, and concepts to humanity in well-formed ways that can be implemented fruitfully across time (Al-Saidi, 2009).
Nowadays, many of the modern learning methods may contain or depend on some learning basics that come from Prophet Mohammad's school. Some ways are considered standards of current learning methods while other ways are still scholarly uncovered until now up to our knowledge. The newly emerged ways of adaptive learning models and blended learning environments are yet a fertile field for making learning developments, and ways of torturing may be incorporated within this field(Mogire & Oboko, 2013),(Temdee, 2014).

Prophet Mohammad P.B.U.H School Categories: 


The Prophet starts calling for Islam with his companions first to make a strong base for humans to learn from, worship Allah S.W.T., manage daily life, and deal with family and other people. Any act, behavior, method, or way taken from the Prophet is called Sunnah (Al-Twaim, 2011),(Ali, 2002),(Al-Ghazali, 1957).

Directing.Practical Application:  


 The Prophet gave the lessons regarding worshiping Allah and living matters to his followers, he started by himself doing the obligatory rituals to encourage Muslims to do so; he used the practical application to teach his followers the five pillars of Islam, which are not only movements formality performed for a particular purpose only, as well as not just a ritual or observance occupies a place or period; they are the media that raise the humans and close them to Almighty creator(Ali, 2002). An example when someone new to Islam asked the prophet about the prayers and their times, the Prophet asked him to pray with people for two days to learn, so that man just kept watching Muslims when they prayed five times a day, after two days the last pray finished, Prophet ask where is that man who wished to learn prayers and their times? The man replied here I am, I learned them well. (Mehdi, 2013)

Getting Knowledge from Learners in The Presence of The Instructor.

Another approach is letting one of the learners give the lesson to the others, one day two men invoked the Prophet; he diverted the judgment to one of his followers who said how to make a judgment in your presence? The Prophet replied, if you make right, you'll be rewarded ten, but if you make a wrong decision you’ll get one reward only. Here the prophet encouraged Muslims to take responsibility for each other, not to limit groups them. (Ali, 2002).

Openness to Other Communities.


The Prophet encouraged his followers to be open to other nations to know their customs, morals, and behaviors and to keep them safe from harm. For example, the prophet asked one of his followers to learn Hebrew to be the prophet's translator who could understand the Jewish tribes' messages and reply to them in Hebrew. Another example is during the Alkhandaq(Trench) war with Jews of Madinah who broke the covenant with Muslims, the Prophet took advantage of making a trench in the northern area of Almadinah, with advice from his follower Salman Alfarsi as Persians did against invasions by horses.(Debabeche, 2008).

Mind Management.


a. Thinking Management:  

 Quran and Sunnah encourage using the mind and intellect, forbidding minds wasting is one of the greatest purposes of religion, with great interest in mental education,(Al-Twaim, 2011). In Islam, the science request is an imposition, as well as education and delivery of science to others, Prophet said that anyone entering the Masjid to learn or to teach good matters, would be like the combatant for the sake of Allah).



b. Mental Persuasion. 

 The Prophet fostered mental persuasion development, which is the key to scientific discoveries' growth of the human mind.  An example of utilizing mental persuasion, is when a man comes to the Prophet said:( O Messenger of Allah, my boy was born black(suspect in his wife), the Prophet said: Do you have camels? The man said: Yes, Prophet said, what colors? He said: Reds, said: Is one of them grey? Man said: Yes, Prophet said: How so? The man said: mutation, Prophet Said: Perhaps your son is mutation), (Siddiqui, 2008).



 c. Brainstorming. 

 Brainstorming targets innovative problem-solving, finding new projects, stimulating thinking and creativity training, and apprentice students (Debabeche, 2008). A brainstorming was used by the Prophet when asking his followers: (What are the trees whose leaves never fall, that look like the Muslim? [he meant that the Muslim's good work never gone away]; Tell me about it? After a while the Prophet answered his question: The palm tree). Here the Prophet does not specify a particular person to get the answer from, instead, his question is in a plural form to give the group of people a chance to think and discuss before answering, not to relate it to a particular person, which may have the impression of embarrassing(Siddiqui, 2008).



 d. Hitting Parables.  

 Making comparisons among objects and events to derive the solution is from the nature of the human brain, hitting parables clearly shown in most of the dialogues and arguments. The Prophet gave preliminary and great importance to the way of hitting parables and metaphors for being an effective and influential role in the process of teaching and developing moral and social values (Ali, 2002). The Prophet hired hitting proverbs to illustrate his sermons to the people; which have a rhetorical persuasive power, splendor of clarity in the embodiment of the intended meaning, and portrayed in the form of sensory to make it is present in front of the listener. Evidence is when the Prophet said:(Such as the believers in their mutual love and mercy and compassion like the body if an organ complained to falter, the rest of the body ensuring fever). (Al-Zahrani,2013).


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Sunday, September 15, 2019

Reflect Some Common Qualities of Primary Teachers| Why are these qualities required for effective classroom learning

Q.1 Reflect Some Common Qualities of Primary Teachers? Why are these qualities required for effective classroom learning?

Course: General Methods of Teaching 

Course code 8601

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

Answer
Primary School Teaching can be incredibly rewarding and raises its own unique challenges compared with teaching in a secondary environment. Whether you are looking to become a Primary School teacher or are just looking for some tips on how to be even better, we’re here to help! We’ve put together a list of some of the qualities that make a great primary teacher:


Fairness 

Fairness is one of the characteristics of the student’s favorite teachers. All humans possess an inbuilt sense of fair play. Whenever a person violates, the other person in this situation is prone to react negatively. 

Any impression of favoritism, or lack of fairness, leaves scars on the lives of persons that last forever. The students report in great detail, the unfair actions of their teachers when they had negative experiences of competition between classmates, even after many years have passed. 


Positive Attitude 

Another characteristic that students like most is the positive attitude and approach of the teacher they use in the classroom. Scholars suggest that effective teachers are those who use meaningful verbal praise to get and keep students actively participating in the learning process. Effective teachers are generally positive-minded individuals who believe in the success of their students as well as their own ability to help students achievements. 

If the teachers have a positive attitude they “catch students doing things right" rather than “catching them doing something wrong.” The students often recall praise and recognition that was given by their teachers at schools, and they point to the confidence and direction that often resulted in their lives. 

Preparedness 

Competence and knowledge of the content area being taught is something that our college students have always mentioned about their favorite teachers. In a retard: the students pointed out that in classrooms where teachers were well prepared, behavior problems were less prevalent. The well-prepared teacher is more likely to be able to take time during lessons to notice and attend to behavioral matters and is less likely to miss the beginnings of potentially disruptive activity. If, on the other hand, teachers have not spent sufficient time in planning and preparation, they tend to be so focused on what they are doing that they miss the early signs of misbehavior. This ultimately results in frequent disruption, waste of valuable instructional time, and student frustration. 

Personal Touch 

Teachers who are connected personally with their students; call them by name, smile often, ask about students’ feelings and Opinions, and accept students for who they are. As well as the teachers who tell stories of their own life events that relate to the subject matter currently being taught, motivate students’ interest, and endorse bonding with the students. Teachers who show interest in their students have interested students. 

Sense of Humor 

If a teacher can break the ice in difficult situations with the use of humor, this is an extremely valuable asset for teaching. According to McDermott 49. Rothenberg (2000) students enjoy teachers with a sense 'of humor and remember those teachers who made learning fun. Good teachers enjoy a laugh with the class occasionally. 

Creativity 

 Creativity students always like the unusual things that their teachers do in creative ways. The construction of models or things from waste like plastic bottles provides a field into which children could go and work by themselves quietly on academic activities like puzzles and word-finds.
Fun activities arranged by teachers in the classroom encourage the students to learn. Teachers can use unique ways of motivating their classes. The teacher sets a reward for the class for reaching a particular academic goal. For example, a teacher can give extra marks on the work done by the students creatively. 


Willingness to Admit Mistakes 


Like everybody, teachers may make mistakes. Sometimes students may know when their teachers make mistakes. Unfortunately, some teachers try to let the mistakes go unnoticed or cover them quickly. Teachers who recognize their mistakes in a very humble and pleasant way and apologize to them. This act teacher provides an excellent model for the students, and they may be remembered as a good teacher. 

Forgiving 

Effective teachers reflect a willingness to forgive students for misbehavior. For example, if a student repeatedly asks irrelevant questions and detracts others from the lesson. The teacher can simply say the question is relevant and direct the student to further study. 

Respect 

The teachers desire to be respected by their students. The teachers who give respect to their students are always respected by them. Effective teachers can train their students to be respectful in many ways such as he can keep individual grades on papers confidentially or speaking to students privately after misbehavior not in front of others. Good teachers show sensitivity to feelings and consistently avoid situations that unnecessarily make students uncomfortable. 

High expectations 


Teachers with positive attitudes also possess high expectations for success. Teachers‘ expectation levels affect how teachers teach and interact with students. Generally, students either rise to their teachers’ expectations or do not perform well when expectations are low or non-existent. The best teachers have the highest standards. They consistently challenge their students to do their best. 

Compassion 


Hopefully, school is a place where children can learn and be nurtured in an emotionally safe environment. Sometimes in youngster's classrooms there may happen a significant amount of cruelty and butt feelings. In these situations, a caring teacher tries to reduce the impact of hurt feelings on learning.


Sense of Belonging

Teachers developed a sense of family in their classrooms. A variety of strategies such as random act of kindness awards, class picture albums, and cooperative cl goals build a sense of unity and belonging and maintain an emotionally safe classroom. Good teachers also took strong measures to prevent mean and hurtful behavior like teasing and bullying. Effective teachers know Well that when children feel emotionally and physically safe, they learn far better.


Why these qualities are required?

Knowledge and skills are taught and learned at school. School is a little community itself where teachers and students interact -with each other. During this interaction, teachers influence their learner’s behavior, and learners influence their teacher’s behavior The nature of this interaction is an important factor in determining the learner's perceptions of school and his/her attitudes toward school-related persons and activities This factor involves the relationship between the personality of the teacher and that of the learner. 

A teacher’s personality traits are important as Callahan, (1966) says that the teacher whose personality helps create and maintain a classroom or learning environment in which students feel comfortable and in which they are motivated to learn 18 is said to have a desirable teaching personality. 

Research says that teachers are cognitively oriented toward, pupils while pupils an effectively oriented toward teachers. A teacher's personality is, therefore, directly and indirectly related to learning and teaching in the affective domain as well as to the cognitive and psychomotor domains, (LEW, 1977) 

Teachers have the right and responsibility to develop a climate in the classroom that supports effective learning. Aristotle quoted in Stephen Covey, "The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People", says, "We are what we repeatedly do".


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Define Descriptive Research and what are the Major Forms

Q 5: Define descriptive research and what are the major forms?  Strengthen your answer with examples of Case Studies, Casual Comparative studies, and correlation.

Course: : Research Methods in Education

Course Code  8604

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER


 1. Descriptive research:

 It is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject. In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens. For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any investigative details on “why” the patterns exeunt. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the objective of the study. 

 2. Characteristics of Descriptive Research:

 The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the research, and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity. Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

  3. Quantitative research:

 Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows one to collect and describe the nature of the demographic segment. 

4. Uncontrolled variables:

 In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

  5. Cross-sectional studies: 

 Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections 
belonging to the same group are studied.

  6. Basis for further research:

 The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types of research methods to be used for the subsequent research.

 The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods

 One of the goals of science is description (other goals include prediction and explanation). Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound — they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not determine cause and effect. There are three main types of descriptive methods:  observational methods, case-study methods, and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media or when reading a  research study on your own. 

 Observational Method

 With the observational method animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. 

The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations. 

Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation. 

Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important regarding the advancement of scientific knowledge.

  Case Study Method

 Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions. 

There are two serious problems with case studies —  expectancy effects and a typical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing a typical individual may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity. 

Survey Method

 In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. For the survey to be both reliable and valid the questions must be constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend. 

Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions. Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type. 

Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically. 

In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods. 

It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause A? 

Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the truth.

A causal-comparative design is a research design that seeks to find relationships between independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred. ... Many similarities exist between causal-comparative research and correlation research. 


"An important difference between causal-comparative and correlation research is that causal-comparative studies involve two or more groups and one independent variable, while correlation studies involve two or more variables and one group." ... b) manipulates at least one independent variable.

 CORRELATION RESEARCH 

 To be carried out to help explain important human behaviors or to predict likely outcomes. Purposes of 
correlational research 
Explanatory studies It is to clarify our understanding of important phenomena by identifying relationship among variables. Always investigate several variables they believe are related to a more complex variable such as motivation or learning. Types of correlational research.
Selecting a problem Choosing a sample Selecting or developing an instrument  Determining procedures.

 Collecting and analyzing data Interpreting result Basic steps Teacher about to study the causes of the amount of  descriptive behaviour display in class. Students having difficulty in mathematics subject. Teachers are about to study the causes of students not performing in the subject.
Example What Investigator attempts to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among a group of individuals. Sometimes viewed, along with correlation research, as a form of associational research, since both describe conditions that already exist.

 CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

Two groups of individuals differ on some variable ( such as teaching style) and then interrupt to determine the reason for or the result of this difference. Example Group Differences The group difference variable in a causal-comparative study is: Either a variable that cannot be manipulated (such as ethnicity) or one that might have been manipulated but for one reason or another has not been (such as teaching style) Example: in the effects of a new diet on very young children 

It is one of the types of research methods that use a comparison between cause and effect. Comparisons can establish whether something can be explained by the same causes or not. The difference can be a conclusion but not the cause of the difference. Interpretation of this kind of method is limited because these studies are of value in identifying possible causes of observed variation in the behavior patterns of students. This kind of research can be used in prediction about problem such as, the different achievements of student in the class. If it 
about teaching methods, it can be research either it is related with art multimedia method or the self-learning methods.

Case Study Method.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews) Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations &interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen. The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e. the patient’s personal history).
                             
The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (homothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies. Amongst the sources of data the psychologist is likely to turn to when carrying out a case study are observations of a person’s daily routine, unstructured interviews with the participant herself (and with people who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well. The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation, e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group. 
                             
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. Freud's most famous case studies include Little Hans (1909a) and The Rat Man (1909b). Even today case histories are one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines, they can give a vivid insight into what those who suffer from mental illness often have to endure. Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and reporting descriptive information about a particular person or specific environment, such as a school. In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life. 

To produce a fairly detailed and comprehensive profile of the person, the psychologist may use various types of accessible data, such as medical records, employer reports, school reports, or psychological test results. The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person's friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself. This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist,  therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e. someone with a professional qualification. There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e. abnormal) behavior or atypical development. The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The client also reports details of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study and interprets the information. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always make clear which information is a factual description and which is an inference or the opinion of the researcher. 


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Friday, September 13, 2019

Main approaches of behavioral objectives| Develop ten statements of behavioral objectives

Q 5:  Describe the main approaches of behavioral objectives. Develop ten statements of behavioral objectives of the research course of the Master's level program?

Course: Curriculum Development

Course Code  8603

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

The Behavioral Approach is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives are specified. Contents and activities are arranged to match with specified learning objectives. The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives that are set at the beginning.

This approach is grounded in scientific principles. Everything the students do must be observable as this is the evidence that the student has achieved the goals and objectives, which are also based on observable behaviors. All activities lead to students being able to do whatever the goals and objectives specify.

The Behavioral Approach is the oldest, and still the major approach. This approach relies on technical and scientific principles. It includes paradigms, models, and step-by-step strategies. Goals and objectives are specified. All the content and activities are sequenced based on objectives, and learning outcomes are evaluated based on goals and objectives.

Fredrick Taylor 

At the close of the 19th century, American education became ever increasingly affected by the developments and ideas present in business and industry – especially the Scientific  Management theory postulated or developed by Frederick W. Taylor. 

Taylor, an engineer working for Bethlehem Steel, developed his management theory that consisted of four basic principles. Taylor’s four principles along with how his theories are still affecting education are listed below:

•  Scientific research & analysis of work - Taylor insisted that the duty of a manager was to examine a task so that the task could be performed faster and better. According to Taylor the ultimate goal of any manager was to increase production. Taylor did several studies relating to the tasks of workers and formulated ways in which production could increase.

•  Scientific selection, training, and development –  Taylor argued that every worker should be trained as to how best to achieve or complete a task and once trained the worker or employee must follow the adopted practice. This idea is embedded in each state’s requirement for teacher certification. The idea of course is that workers (teachers) who are trained in specific curricula can provide much more information to students than can teachers trained in a wide discipline.

•  Intimate, friendly, and hearty cooperation for scientific work principles – Taylor felt that workers should be paid for their production. He advocated paying workers based on what they achieved and
thus workers were placed into an incentive system. Many states have implemented and continue to implement this idea through a variety of plans including “merit pay”, career ladder, and currently the National Board standards.
                                                                                                                                                                                                 The idea in education is that those teachers who put forth more effort than others should be financially rewarded.

•  Planning work tasks were the responsibility of management. Workers should then be closely supervised to ensure their completion of any assigned tasks. The formal and informal teacher evaluation process of today somewhat mirrors Taylor’s idea concerning the duty of management to closely supervise employees.

Franklin Bobbit

Franklin Bobbit believed that the learning objectives, together with the activities, should be grouped and sequenced after clarifying the instructional activities and tasks. He also viewed curriculum as a science that emphasized the needs of the students. This viewpoint explains why lessons are planned and organized depending on the needs of the students and these needs must be addressed by the teachers to prepare them for adult life.  Bobbitt is best known for two books, The Curriculum (1918) and How to Make a Curriculum (1924). In these volumes and in his other writings, he developed a theory of curriculum development borrowed from the principles of scientific management, which the engineer Frederick W. Taylor had articulated earlier in the century in his efforts to render American industry more efficient.

                           The key principle for Taylor was the task idea, the notion that each worker should be given a narrowly defined production assignment that he was to perform at a specific rate using
certain predefined procedures. It was the responsibility of an emerging profession of efficiency experts to identify these precise steps. The procedures for curriculum planning, which Bobbitt referred to as job analysis, were adapted from Taylor's work and began with the identification of the specific activities that adults undertook in fulfilling their various occupational, citizenship, family, and other social roles. The resulting activities were to be the objectives of the curriculum. The curriculum itself, Bobbitt noted, was comprised of the school experiences that educators constructed to enable children to attain these objectives.

Bobbit's Contribution


First, he was one of the first American educators to advance the case for the identification of objectives as the starting point for curriculum making.  Second, his so-called scientific approach to curriculum-making served as a precedent for the work of numerous educators during the next half-century in spelling out the procedures for designing the course of study.It was a method that became and has remained the conventional wisdom among American educators concerning the process of curriculum development. Third, Bobbitt along with other early-twentieth-century efficiency-oriented school reformers made the case that the curriculum ought to be differentiated into numerous programs, some academic and preparatory and others vocational and terminal, and that students ought to be channeled to these tracks based on their abilities.






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Accountability with Reference to Curriculum Development and Importance of Evaluation

Explain the concept of accountability concerning curriculum development.Evaluate the importance of evaluation for the improvement of curriculum development.

Course: Curriculum Development

Course Code  8603

Level: B.Ed Solved Assignment

ANSWER 

In the UK, as in many other countries, schools are held accountable for their ability to provide high-quality education that leads to strong educational outcomes. To support discussions about accountability system reforms, NFER produced a rapid literature review on the impact of accountability on curriculum, standards, and engagement. We reviewed a small body of the best available evidence on the accountability systems in Australia (New South Wales), England, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, and Wales.

We focused on evidence relating to primary education. The literature offers useful insights, though there was a lack of data and robust, quantitative evidence.

Key Findings


Curriculum


•  Where pupil performance is used as a high-stakes accountability measure, there is concern that schools prioritise certain parts of the curriculum over others (‘teaching to the test’).
           
•  Where accountability systems focus on “borderline” or “cliff edge” measures, targeted teaching may limit some pupils’ experience of the school curriculum.

•  International benchmarking can markedly affect curriculum policy.

Standards

•  To support school effectiveness, accountability systems should feature:

o  clear responsibilities

o  coherent, aligned objectives at all levels

o  transparent performance assessment criteria.

•  Accountability measures can increase or decrease the achievement gap; it is all in the application.
Engagement

•  Teacher education can support teachers’ engagement with assessment data to inform classroom teaching and learning.

•  The extent to which pupils’ experiences of assessments, such as test anxiety, specifically relate to accountability is unclear. 

•  Placing undue emphasis on the performance of some groups at the expense of others may lessen pupil engagement.


Importance of evaluation for the improvement of curriculum development:

This module offers opportunities for curriculum professionals to develop their understanding of curriculum evaluation and student assessment by exploring:

•  International and regional trends and rationales for curriculum evaluation and student learning assessment;

•  Types and methods of curriculum evaluation and student assessment;

•  Approaches to the restructuring of evaluation and assessment systems.


This module is organized into three activities:

1.  Curriculum evaluation. The participant is guided through an analytical schema to plan the evaluation of curricula.

2.  Student assessment. Participants examine considerations about student assessment that are regularly included in curriculum materials.

3.  Assessment of learning outcomes in specific content areas. Strategies and special modalities for the assessment of learning outcomes are analyzed for content areas recently included in curricula.
Following these activities is a “Resources” section which contains a list of discussion papers and other resources referred to in the activities, and a series of additional reading materials.

Conceptual framework 

Curriculum evaluation is a necessary and important aspect of any national education system. It provides the basis for curriculum policy decisions, for feedback on continuous curriculum adjustments and processes of curriculum implementation.


The fundamental concerns of curriculum evaluation relate to:

•  Effectiveness and efficiency of translating government education policy into educational practice;

•  Status of curriculum contents and practices in the contexts of global, national, and local concerns;

•  The achievement of the goals and aims of educational programmes.

Student assessment is an important aspect of curriculum evaluation which helps to facilitate the understanding of the impact and outcome of education programmes. A fundamental measure of the success of any curriculum is the quality of student learning. Knowing the extent to which students have achieved the outcomes specified in the curriculum is fundamental to both improving teaching and evaluating the curriculum.

Curriculum evaluation


The term “evaluation” generally applies to the process of making a value judgment. In education, the term “evaluation” is used about operations associated with curricula,programs,interventions, methods of teaching and organizational factors. Curriculum evaluation aims to examine the impact of implemented curriculum on student (learning) 
achievement so that the official curriculum can be revised if necessary and to review teaching and learning processes in the classroom. Curriculum evaluation establishes:

•  Specific strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum and its implementation;

•  Critical information for strategic changes and policy decisions;

•  Inputs needed for improved learning and teaching;

•  Indicators for monitoring.

Curriculum evaluation may be an internal activity and process conducted by the various units within the education system for their own respective purposes. These units may include national Ministries of Education, regional education authorities, institutional supervision and reporting systems, departments of education, schools and communities.Curriculum evaluation may also be external or commissioned review processes. These may be undertaken regularly by special committees or task forces on the curriculum, or they may be research-based studies on the state and effectiveness of various aspects of the curriculum and its implementation. These processes might examine, for example, the effectiveness of curriculum content, existing pedagogies and instructional approaches, teacher training and textbooks and instructional materials.

Student assessment

The ultimate goal of curriculum evaluation is to ensure that the curriculum is effective in 
promoting improved quality of student learning.Assessment of student learning has always been a powerful influence on how and what teachers teach and is thus an important source of feedback on the appropriateness implementation of curriculum content.

                                    Fulfilling the diverse objectives of diagnosis, certification and accountability requires different kinds of assessment instruments and strategies selected to achieve specific purposes.Assessment of student learning could be summative or formative, and there are various types of tests to address different needs such as standardized tests, performance-based tests, 
ability tests, aptitude tests and intelligence tests.








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